摘要
明初通过实行度牒制度，将僧道身份之合法确认权归于国家，实现对制度宗教组织成员的掌控，保持世俗政治文化主导地位及相关经济制度之推行。其基本目标，主要包括限制僧道人口、划分僧俗界限、考试授牒。但僧道定额在正统以后被大幅度突破，成化时期因滥度僧道，已经基本失去效力，虽经弘治时期整理，未根本改变趋势。明中叶以后，僧道中有度牒者，当不低于70万人，其无度牒者，又当远多于有度牒者。嘉靖中叶以后，纳银给度成为主要做法，明初制度精神已然丧失。度牒制度变迁与皇室家族信仰倾向及其利益关系密切。有关争论，基本在官僚士大夫与皇帝、后妃、僧道势力间展开，反映出儒家治国理念与佛道信仰之间的严重冲突。度牒制度由社会控制手段蜕变为财政手段，是明朝社会控制力削弱的过程，也是包括社会救助需求在内的财政压力造成的。
Continued the practice of the previous dynasties, the Ming Dynasty established a system of Buddhist and Taoist certificates, by which the government held the authority of issuing official certificates to the Buddhist monks and Taoist priests. This system made the Ming government possible to keep the members of religious orders under certain degree of control and to maintain the domination of a secular culture. The basic goals of this system include controlling of the population who were involved with the religious orders, making clear lines between the religious clerks and the common people, and assuring the professionalism of the religious clerks. Since the period of Emperor Zhengtong, however, the number limitation of the clerks had been broken through. In Chenghua period, this system had basically lost its function because of the increase of the clerks. Taken the limited effects of the Hongzhi restoration, this system continued to collapse later. By the mid of the Jiajing period, selling became the main method to give out the certificates and the spirit of the early Ming policy had substantially changed. In the mid Ming period, the Buddhist and Taoist certificates holders would not be less than 700000, while the number of monks and Taoist priests who practiced without official certificates was far larger than that of the certificate holders. The change of this system was closely connected to the religious believes of the Royal house and its material interests. The controversy about this matter had been mainly developed among the governmental officials as one party and the Emperors, their spouses, and religious powers as another, which reflected the contradiction of the Confucianism with the other believes. The transformation of this system from a social control means to a financial one, was a part of the decline process of the Ming Dynasty and it was also caused by the financial pressure facing the Ming government including the needs of social relieves.
出处
《古代文明》
CSSCI
2008年第2期72-87,共16页
The Journal of Ancient Civilizations
关键词
明代
僧道
度牒
变迁
Ming Dynasty Buddhist Monks Taoist Priests Du-die system social Changes
