The microcolonial black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus is an extremophile organism growing on and in rock in the Antarctic desert. Ecological plasticity and stress tolerance make it a perfect model organism for astrobio...The microcolonial black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus is an extremophile organism growing on and in rock in the Antarctic desert. Ecological plasticity and stress tolerance make it a perfect model organism for astrobiology. 2D-gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry were performed to explore the protein repertoire, which allows the fungus to survive in the harsh environment. Only a limited number of proteins could be identified by using sequence homologies in public databases. Due to the rather low identification rate by sequence homology, this study reveals that a major part of the proteome of C. antarcticus varies significantly from other fungal species.展开更多
Extremophiles and their enzymes are explored in this review article,which highlights the peculiar adaptations that these organisms have developed to survive in some of the harshest circumstances on Earth.Microorganism...Extremophiles and their enzymes are explored in this review article,which highlights the peculiar adaptations that these organisms have developed to survive in some of the harshest circumstances on Earth.Microorganisms known as extremophiles challenge our knowledge of habitable environments by living in settings that have extreme characteristics,such as high temperature,salinity,acidity,pressure,alkalinity,radiation,dryness,and many more.The diverse specialized enzymes that these hardy organisms have developed allow them to perform at their best in such harsh circumstances,providing priceless insights into the biochemical and structural adaptations required for survival in hostile environments.An overview of the diversity of extremophiles-which include bacteria,archaea,and even some eukaryotes that are suited to distinct extreme environments is given at the beginning of the article.Following that,it explores the intriguing realm of extremophilic enzymes,emphasizing how exceptionally robust and active they are in harsh environments.The article clarifies the mechanisms behind the remarkable functionality and robustness of extremophile enzymes by thoroughly examining their biochemical characteristics and structural aspects.The review article also examines the various biotechnological uses of extremophile enzymes,including industrial procedures,environmental cleanup,and drug manufacturing.展开更多
Species of the genus Paenibacillus,especially those from extreme environments that have been reported,are known for producing bioactive compounds with agricultural and biotechnological applications.In this study,we in...Species of the genus Paenibacillus,especially those from extreme environments that have been reported,are known for producing bioactive compounds with agricultural and biotechnological applications.In this study,we investigated the genomic and biochemical potential of Paenibacillus sp.VCA1 strain isolated from a thermophilic environment.Taxonomic identification was performed using whole genome similarity analysis,TETRA four-nucleotide frequency of occurrence analysis,ANI average nucleotide identity analysis,and gene distance analysis using digital DNA-DNA hybridization(dDDH).Functional analysis of the strain VCA1 was performed by detecting genes,enzymes,and genome subsystems involved in biocontrol and plant growth promotion,which was carried out using the RAST(Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology),the seed server and antiSAMSH(antibiotics&Secondary Metabolite Analysis Shell).Genetic analyses showed the existence of 11 fatty acid and isoprenoid production genes,56 motility and chemotaxis genes,29 N-acetylglucosamine genes,and five siderophore genes.Finally,the antifungal and emulsifying activities demonstrated that strain VCA1 has activity against Fusarium oxysporum strain 45ta using integrated genomic and experimental validation,and the antifungal properties of the Paenibacillus sp.VCA1 has suggested potential use as a biocontrol agent against phytopathogenic fungi,and its continuous study can have beneficial applications in sustainable agriculture and biotechnology.展开更多
Extremophiles pose challenges to microbiologists and researchers by inhabiting the environments with extreme conditions such as alkalinity,acidity,dryness,salinity,pressure and high temperature.The research on the ext...Extremophiles pose challenges to microbiologists and researchers by inhabiting the environments with extreme conditions such as alkalinity,acidity,dryness,salinity,pressure and high temperature.The research on the extremophilic microbial communities such as the thermophiles,halophiles,psychrophiles and piezophiles has increased exponentially in past couple of decades as of their ability to produce an extensive range of enzymes with stability and catalytic activity under harsh conditions.These features of extremophilic enzymes make them an amazing alternative for applications in biotechnological,textile,detergent,pharmaceutical and food industries.Adding more,these enzymes serve as cornerstone for environmentally conscious and industrial sustainability.Further,advancements in omics approaches provide new insights into discovering the diversity of unculturable microbes.The multi-omics approaches provide a means to explore the extremophilic diversity,find out novel genes,enzymes and essential products with industrial relevance.Thus,the study of the extremophiles and their enzymes with potential applications is emerging in the recent years.The present review focuses on the biodiversity of extremozymes producing microbes,omics approaches for exploring these enzymes and major applications in diverse industries.展开更多
This paper critically re-examines the anthropocentric“Goldilocks Zone”paradigm that has dominated the search for extraterrestrial life.As of 2024,more than 5,500 exoplanets have been identified,yet only about 2%are ...This paper critically re-examines the anthropocentric“Goldilocks Zone”paradigm that has dominated the search for extraterrestrial life.As of 2024,more than 5,500 exoplanets have been identified,yet only about 2%are located within the traditionally defined habitable zone(National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA)Exoplanet Archive,2024;Kane et al.,2023).Moreover,the discovery of extremophiles-organisms thriving in high-radiation,extreme heat,or vacuum environments-demonstrates that the boundaries of life far exceed Earth-like conditions(Rothschild&Mancinelli,2001).展开更多
During adaptation to different habitat types, both morphological and behavioral traits can undergo divergent selection. Males often fight for status in dominance hierarchies and rank positions predict reproductive suc...During adaptation to different habitat types, both morphological and behavioral traits can undergo divergent selection. Males often fight for status in dominance hierarchies and rank positions predict reproductive success. Ecotypes with reduced fighting abilities should have low reproductive success when migrating into habitats that harbor ecotypes with superior fighting abilities. Livebearing fishes in the Poecilia mexicana-species complex inhabit not only regular freshwater environments, but also independently colonized sulfidic （H2S-containing） habitats in three river drainages. In the current study, we found fighting intensities in staged contests to be considerably lower in some but not all sulfidic surface ecotypes and the sulfidic cave ecotype compared with populations from non-sulfidic surface sites. This is perhaps due to selection imposed by H2S, which hampers oxygen uptake and transport, as well as cellular respiration. Furthermore, migrants from sulfidic habitats may lose fights even if they do not show overall reduced aggressiveness, as phys- iological performance is likely to be challenged in the non-sulfidic environment to which they are not adapted. To test this hypothesis, we simulated migration of H2S-adapted males into H2S-free waters, as well as H2S-adapted cave-dwelling males into sulfidic surface waters. We found that intruders established dominance less often than resident males, independent of whether or not they showed reduced aggressiveness overall. Our study shows that divergent evolution of male aggressive behavior may also contribute to the maintenance of genetic differentiation in this system and we call for more careful evaluation of male fighting abilities in studies on ecological speciation.展开更多
Black microcolonial fungi and black yeasts are inhabitants of extreme environments like vulcanic, desert and polar regions, where they are exposed to enhanced temperature alterations and desiccation. They have develop...Black microcolonial fungi and black yeasts are inhabitants of extreme environments like vulcanic, desert and polar regions, where they are exposed to enhanced temperature alterations and desiccation. They have developed, therefore, extraordinary biologic characteristics which are mainly based on the expression of proteins, however, these are rarely studied and known. The review article presented here is focused on the obstacles and solutions for the proteomic analyses of this very particular fungal species.展开更多
The development of Chinese space science and technology plays a great role in promoting the researches in the field of the origin of life.With the multidisciplinary cooperation,there are fruitful achievements in this ...The development of Chinese space science and technology plays a great role in promoting the researches in the field of the origin of life.With the multidisciplinary cooperation,there are fruitful achievements in this research field obtained over the past two years.This report summarizes the major progress of the basic researches about the origin of life in China during 2018–2020.展开更多
A halotolerant, gram positive, motile and rod, was isolated from the E1 Gol6a lake of Ghardaia, Alegria and screened for its antimicrobial potential. The strain showed an inhibitory effect to gram positive and gram ne...A halotolerant, gram positive, motile and rod, was isolated from the E1 Gol6a lake of Ghardaia, Alegria and screened for its antimicrobial potential. The strain showed an inhibitory effect to gram positive and gram negative bacteria against Cladosporium spp. and a slight inhibitory effect against C. albicans using chloroform as the extraction solvent and the nutrient broth as production medium. 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the isolate named LMB3981 is a new taxon in the family of Bacillaceae （with 96% similarity）. The strain is close to Filobacillus milosensis and Bacillus haloalkaliphilum with 95% similarity. The phenotypic study showed differences between LMB3981 and two strains that are near and have confirmed the results of 16S rRNA sequencing by specific metabolic properties of the strain.展开更多
The development of space technology makes the exposure of organisms and molecules to the space environment possible by using the ESA Biopan and Expose facilities and NASA nanosatellites;the aim is to decipher the orig...The development of space technology makes the exposure of organisms and molecules to the space environment possible by using the ESA Biopan and Expose facilities and NASA nanosatellites;the aim is to decipher the origin, evolution and distribution of life on Earth and in the Universe. The study of microbial communities thriving in lithic habitats in cold and hot deserts is gathering appreciation when dealing with the limits of life as we know it, the identification of biosignatures for searching life beyond Earth and the validation of the (litho)-Panspermia theory. Cyanobacteria of the genus Chroococcidiopsis dominate rock-dwelling communities in extreme deserts that are considered terrestrial analogues of Mars, like the Dry Valleys in Antarctica, the Atacama Desert in Chile or the Mojave Desert in California. The extraordinary tolerance of these cyanobacteria towards desiccation, ionizing and UV radiation makes them suitable experimental strains which have been already used in astrobiological experiments and already selected for future space missions. Evidence gained so far supports the use of desert cyanobacteria to develop life support systems and insitu resource utilization for the human space exploration and settlement on the Moon or Mars.展开更多
“Plasmas” up to a kilometer in size and behaving similarly to multicellular organisms have been filmed on 10 separate NASA space shuttle missions, over 200 miles above Earth within the thermosphere. These self-illum...“Plasmas” up to a kilometer in size and behaving similarly to multicellular organisms have been filmed on 10 separate NASA space shuttle missions, over 200 miles above Earth within the thermosphere. These self-illuminated “plasmas” are attracted to and may “feed on” electromagnetic radiation. They have different morphologies: 1) cone, 2) cloud, 3) donut, 4) spherical-cylindrical;and have been filmed flying towards and descending from the thermosphere into thunderstorms;congregating by the hundreds and interacting with satellites generating electromagnetic activity;approaching the Space Shuttles. Computerized analysis of flight path trajectories documents these plasmas travel at different velocities from different directions and change their angle of trajectory making 45°, 90°, and 180° shifts and follow each other. They’ve been filmed accelerating, slowing down, stopping, congregating, engaging in “hunter-predatory” behavior and intersecting plasmas leaving a plasma dust trail in their wake. Similar life-like behaviors have been demonstrated by plasmas created experimentally. “Plasmas” may have been photographed in the 1940s by WWII pilots (identified as “Foo fighters”);repeatedly observed and filmed by astronauts and military pilots and classified as Unidentified Aerial—Anomalous Phenomenon. Plasmas are not biological but may represent a form of pre-life that via the incorporation of elements common in space, could result in the synthesis of RNA. Plasmas constitute a fourth state of matter, are attracted to electromagnetic activity, and when observed in the lower atmosphere likely account for many of the UFO-UAP sightings over the centuries.展开更多
As documented by NASA space shuttle films and detailed in this report, self-illuminating, pulsating, plasma-like UAP/UFO (“plasmoids”) have multiple shapes and sizes, are attracted to electromagnetic activity, and t...As documented by NASA space shuttle films and detailed in this report, self-illuminating, pulsating, plasma-like UAP/UFO (“plasmoids”) have multiple shapes and sizes, are attracted to electromagnetic activity, and travel at different velocities from different directions, making 90 to 180-degree turns, as well as colliding, intersecting and piercing other plasma;and have been filmed by U.S. Navy personnel and a U.S. Customs and Border Protection DHC-8 flying above and diving/sinking beneath the ocean;and by NASA following, circling, and hovering near the space shuttles, satellites, and the MIR International Space Station and congregating above and descending into thunderstorms and the lower atmosphere, which is the air corridor favored by commercial and military aircraft;and this may account for reports of UAPs following, harassing, chasing, and “toying with” aircraft. Plasmas also have explosive properties, negatively affect electronics and mental activity (possibly inducing hallucinations of “alien abductions”), pass through glass, plastic, metal, and enter the cockpits of airplanes and have been observed by astronauts inside spacecraft, the MIR and ISS. It is hypothesized that given their propensity to collide, plasmoids may be responsible for at least some unexplained, inexplicable aircraft disasters. Thunder-lightning-storms are the main drivers of Earth’s GEC and direct positive currents into the ionosphere, which attract plasmas. The troposphere also has a positive charge, and the ocean surface under white water and turbulent conditions develops a positive charge, and we hypothesize that this accounts for sightings of UAP in the lower atmosphere and soaring above and diving into the oceans, including, as reported here, shape-shifting UAP replicons that split into or generate additional shape-shifting UAPs as filmed by NASA and U.S. Customs. Plasmoids appear to purposefully interact and engage in complex behaviors, and it is suspected they are sentient and represent a fourth domain of life. Although plasmas in the lower atmosphere may be responsible for UAP sightings over the centuries, including those that appear to “battle” over cities or follow and harass military ships and planes, plasmoids cannot account for all UAPs, which may include extraterrestrial spacecraft from other worlds.展开更多
Polar exploration provides crucial insights into climate change,evolution,ancient civilizations,and extremophile survival [1].Despite formidable challenges,continuous efforts reveal valuable resources like ancient ice...Polar exploration provides crucial insights into climate change,evolution,ancient civilizations,and extremophile survival [1].Despite formidable challenges,continuous efforts reveal valuable resources like ancient ice,fossils,methane,and novel species [2].The extreme cold remains a primary barrier,as average Antarctic and Arctic temperatures range from-49 to-31.4℃,plunging as low as-78℃in the Arctic and proving lethal [3,4].展开更多
The verrucomicrobial methanotroph,Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,and the microalgae,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1are both thermoacidophilic microorganisms isolated from geothermally heated soils at Rotokawa,Aotearoa-New Zealand....The verrucomicrobial methanotroph,Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,and the microalgae,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1are both thermoacidophilic microorganisms isolated from geothermally heated soils at Rotokawa,Aotearoa-New Zealand.In this work,we used cocultures of Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1 and Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 in batch and continuous systems(45℃,pH 2.5)to assess their biomass productivity and performance;with the goal of removing methane and carbon dioxide from simulated waste gas streams and assessing the resultant biomass for its potential use as single cell protein.Coculture performance was compared to corresponding axenic cultures and the nutritional suitability of resultant biomass was assessed as a single cell protein feedstock.Stable coculture was achieved in both batch and chemostat systems.In batch experiments,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 significantly enhanced growth(29%)and methane oxidation(300%)rates of Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,and complete methane removal was achieved without formation of an explosive gas mixture.In steady state chemostat coculture experiments,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 decreased net volumetric oxygen consumption by 46%,but its oxygenic activity was unable to supply Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1 with the O_(2)required for complete CH4removal.Nevertheless,Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1 benefited from the presence of Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 in a low O_(2)environment;with O_(2)algae-methanotroph cross-feeding playing a fundamental role on their interactions.Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1,and their coculture each displayed similar nutritional profiles,with protein quality comparable to soybean meal and fishmeal feeds used for animals.The biomass needed to meet the daily indispensable amino acid requirements of a 62 kg adult human was 568 g for Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,804 g Galdieria sp.RTK37.1,and 754 g for the coculture,with histidine being the limiting amino acid.These thermoacidophilic cocultures,which have not previously been investigated,offer great potential to convert low(or negative)value industrial gas streams into valuable products(e.g.supplementary biofeedstocks).展开更多
A unicellular-colonial cyanobacterium,designated“BRSZ,”was isolated from a neutral-alkaline hot spring in Thai-land.Morphological characterization revealed distinctive features consistent with those of the genus Glo...A unicellular-colonial cyanobacterium,designated“BRSZ,”was isolated from a neutral-alkaline hot spring in Thai-land.Morphological characterization revealed distinctive features consistent with those of the genus Gloeocapsa.Physiological assessments demonstrated that BRSZ is a moderately thermophilic and halotolerant cyanobacterium with the potential for chemoheterotrophic growth in dark conditions.Molecular phylogenetic analysis based on 16S ribosomal RNA(rRNA)gene sequences placed BRSZ within a well-defined Gloeocapsa clade,a finding cor-roborated by 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer(ITS)rRNA secondary structure analyses.Genome compar-isons,including average nucleotide identity(ANI),genome-to-genome distance(GGD),and digital DNA-DNA hybridization(dDDH),between strain BRSZ and closely related taxa showed an ANI value of 95.45%,near the lower boundary of the species delineation threshold(95-96%).A GGD of 0.0374(>0.0258)and dDDH of 69%(<70%)further supported genomic differentiation.Genome-based analysis revealed a mycosporine-like amino acid biosynthetic gene cluster likely involved in sunscreen compound production.Cultivation-based production of a UV-absorbing compound confirmed the functional relevance of this gene cluster.These findings expand the described diversity within the Gloeocapsa complex and enhance our understanding of the taxonomy of this group.In addition,they underscored the importance of hot spring environments as sources of novel extremophiles.展开更多
Desert plants have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive in arid environments,where water scarcity and extreme temperatures pose significant challenges to life.The desert moss Syntrichia caninervis stands out as a...Desert plants have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive in arid environments,where water scarcity and extreme temperatures pose significant challenges to life.The desert moss Syntrichia caninervis stands out as an exemplary model of extreme desiccation tolerance(DT),offering invaluable insights into plant adaptation to water deficit.This study presents a comprehensive multi-omics analysis of S.caninervis during controlled dehydration and rehydration process,integrating transcriptomic,proteomic,and metabolomic data to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying its remarkable resilience.Our findings reveal a sophisticated,multilayered response characterized by extensive transcriptional reprogramming(3,153 differentially expressed genes),dynamic proteome remodeling(873 differentially expressed proteins),and strategic metabolic reconfiguration(185 differentially abundant metabolites).Key adaptations include the coordinated downregulation of photosynthetic processes,upregulation of stress-responsive genes and proteins,accumulation of protective metabolites,and enhancement of antioxidant systems.Notably,we observed significant temporal asynchrony between transcript and protein levels,underscoring the complexity of post-transcriptional regulation in stress responses.The core mechanisms of S.caninervis DT comprises cellular protection and metabolic dormancy during dehydration,followed by efficient repair and recovery processes upon rehydration.These findings not only advance our understanding of plant evolution and adaptation to extreme environments but also identify potential targets for enhancing drought tolerance in crops and exploring plant survival under extreme environment.By deciphering the molecular basis of extreme DT,this research opens new avenues for addressing agricultural challenges in water-limited environments and expands our knowledge of plant life’s adaptability to harsh terrestrial.展开更多
In this study,we evaluated the pathogenic potential of the fungi Aspergillus thermomutatus and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa obtained from maritime Antarctic permafrost using in vivo experiments on immunocompromised BALB/c...In this study,we evaluated the pathogenic potential of the fungi Aspergillus thermomutatus and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa obtained from maritime Antarctic permafrost using in vivo experiments on immunocompromised BALB/c mice.Despite the low mortality observed,immunosuppressed animals infected with A.thermomutatus and R.mucilaginosa exhibited fluctuations in body mass and induced changes in the neuropsychiatric state of the mice.Fungi were recovered from the lungs,spleen,blood,and brain of infected mice at densities similar to but slightly lower than the inoculum up to 5 days post-inoculation.A.thermomutatus infection induced an inflammatory process in the lungs of infected BALB/c mice.In the target organs of animals infected with R.mucilaginosa,a notable fungal load was detected in the brains of infected animals.These results suggest that viable isolates of fungi such as A.thermomutatus and R.mucilaginosa originating from Antarctic permafrost,which is exposed to increasing melt caused by rising temperatures in the region,may present significant pathogenic potential.This highlights that climate change in Antarctica may facilitate the release and dispersal of fungi and other pathogenic microorganisms capable of infecting humans and animals.展开更多
The term ＂extreme environments＂ describes the conditions that deviate from what mesophilic cells can tolerate. These condi- tions are ＂extreme＂ in the eye of mankind, but they may be suitable or even essential liv...The term ＂extreme environments＂ describes the conditions that deviate from what mesophilic cells can tolerate. These condi- tions are ＂extreme＂ in the eye of mankind, but they may be suitable or even essential living conditions for most microorgan- isms. Hypertherrnophilic microorganisms form a branch at the root of the phylogenetic tree, indicating that early life originated from extreme environments similar to that of modern deep-sea hydrothermal vents, which are characterized by high-tempera- ture and oxygen-limiting conditions. During the inevitable cooling and gradual oxidation process on Earth, microorganisms developed similar mechanisms of adaptation. By studying modem extremophiles, we may be able to decode the mysterious history of their genomic evolution and to reconstruct e~,rly life. Because life itself is a process of energy uptake to maintain a dissipative structure that is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, the energy metabolism of microorganisms determines the path- way of evolution, the structure of an ecosystem, and the physiology of cells. ＂Following energy＂ is an essential approach to understand the boundaries of life and to search for life beyond Earth.展开更多
Polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHA)have been produced by some bacteria as bioplastics for many years.Yet their commercialization is still on the way.A few issues are related to the difficulty of PHA commercialization:namely,hi...Polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHA)have been produced by some bacteria as bioplastics for many years.Yet their commercialization is still on the way.A few issues are related to the difficulty of PHA commercialization:namely,high cost and instabilities on molecular weights(Mw)and structures,thus instability on thermo-mechanical properties.The high cost is the result of complicated bioprocessing associated with sterilization,low conversion of carbon substrates to PHA products,and slow growth of microorganisms as well as difficulty of downstream separation.Future engineering on PHA producing microorganisms should be focused on contamination resistant bacteria especially extremophiles,developments of engineering approaches for the extremophiles,increase on carbon substrates to PHA conversion and controlling Mw of PHA.The concept proof studies could still be conducted on E.coli or Pseudomonas spp.that are easily used for molecular manipulations.In this review,we will use E.coli and halophiles as examples to show how to engineer bacteria for enhanced PHA biosynthesis and for increasing PHA competitiveness.展开更多
The diversity of filamentous fungi that can grow at high ambient pH values(i.e.,8–11)remains largely understudied.Here we study 100 alkalitolerant and alkaliphilic isolates from the soils around the basin of soda lak...The diversity of filamentous fungi that can grow at high ambient pH values(i.e.,8–11)remains largely understudied.Here we study 100 alkalitolerant and alkaliphilic isolates from the soils around the basin of soda lakes in Asia and Africa to assess the major evolutionary lineages and morphologies pertinent to the alkaliphilic trait in filamentous fungi.The Emericellopsis lineage(Hypocreales,Hypocreomycetidae),along with Plectosphaerellaceae(Hypocreomycetidae),Pleosporaceae(Dothideomycetes),Chaetomiaceae(Sordariomycetidae)families appeared to be overrepresented with strong alkalitolerants and effective alkaliphiles.In particular,Sodiomyces species(Plectosphaerellaceae),Acrostalagmus luteoalbus(Plectosphaerellaceae),Emericellopsis alkalina(Hypocreales),Thielavia sp.(Chaetomiaceae),and Alternaria sect.Soda(Pleosporaceae)grew best at high ambient pH.The pH tolerance of Chordomyces antarcticum,Acrostalagmus luteoalbus and some other species was largely affected by the presence of extra Na+in the growth medium.Moderate alkalitolerants included Scopulariopsis members(Microascales),Fusarium,Cladosporium,and many asexual acremonium-like species from Bionectriaceae.Weak alkalitolerants were represented by sporadic isolates of Penicillium,Purpureocillium lilacinum,and Alternaria alternata species,with the growth optimum at neutral or acidic pH.Weak alkalitolerants develop loose dry chains of spores easily dispersed by air.Their presence at low frequency with the growth optimum at neutral or acidic pH leads us to treat them as transient species in the alkaline soils,as those are also ubiquitous saprobes in normal soils.Our phylogenetic analyses show that the alkaliphilic trait in filamentous fungi has evolved several times.Several lineages harboring strong alkalitolerants derived from the known marine-borne fungi(Emericellopsis,Alternaria sect.Phragmosporae),or fall within the fungi associated with halophytic grasses(Pleosporaceae).Soda soils contain a diversity of fungi that range from weak alkalitolerant to alkaliphilic,which in few cases is associated with darkly pigmented mycelium and formation of microsclerotia.The alkaliphilic trait is spread throughout the Ascomycota,and usually juxtaposes with slime-covered polyphyletic acremonium-,verticillium-,gliocladium-types of asexual morphology,hyphae aggregating in chords,and enclosed fruit bodies.展开更多
文摘The microcolonial black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus is an extremophile organism growing on and in rock in the Antarctic desert. Ecological plasticity and stress tolerance make it a perfect model organism for astrobiology. 2D-gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry were performed to explore the protein repertoire, which allows the fungus to survive in the harsh environment. Only a limited number of proteins could be identified by using sequence homologies in public databases. Due to the rather low identification rate by sequence homology, this study reveals that a major part of the proteome of C. antarcticus varies significantly from other fungal species.
文摘Extremophiles and their enzymes are explored in this review article,which highlights the peculiar adaptations that these organisms have developed to survive in some of the harshest circumstances on Earth.Microorganisms known as extremophiles challenge our knowledge of habitable environments by living in settings that have extreme characteristics,such as high temperature,salinity,acidity,pressure,alkalinity,radiation,dryness,and many more.The diverse specialized enzymes that these hardy organisms have developed allow them to perform at their best in such harsh circumstances,providing priceless insights into the biochemical and structural adaptations required for survival in hostile environments.An overview of the diversity of extremophiles-which include bacteria,archaea,and even some eukaryotes that are suited to distinct extreme environments is given at the beginning of the article.Following that,it explores the intriguing realm of extremophilic enzymes,emphasizing how exceptionally robust and active they are in harsh environments.The article clarifies the mechanisms behind the remarkable functionality and robustness of extremophile enzymes by thoroughly examining their biochemical characteristics and structural aspects.The review article also examines the various biotechnological uses of extremophile enzymes,including industrial procedures,environmental cleanup,and drug manufacturing.
基金funded by Tecnologico Nacional de Mexico/IT de Tuxtla Gutierrez with project number 22847.25-PFunding came from the“Consejo Nacional de Humanidades,Ciencias y Tecnologias”(CONAHCYT,Mexico),with Project No.320299.
文摘Species of the genus Paenibacillus,especially those from extreme environments that have been reported,are known for producing bioactive compounds with agricultural and biotechnological applications.In this study,we investigated the genomic and biochemical potential of Paenibacillus sp.VCA1 strain isolated from a thermophilic environment.Taxonomic identification was performed using whole genome similarity analysis,TETRA four-nucleotide frequency of occurrence analysis,ANI average nucleotide identity analysis,and gene distance analysis using digital DNA-DNA hybridization(dDDH).Functional analysis of the strain VCA1 was performed by detecting genes,enzymes,and genome subsystems involved in biocontrol and plant growth promotion,which was carried out using the RAST(Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology),the seed server and antiSAMSH(antibiotics&Secondary Metabolite Analysis Shell).Genetic analyses showed the existence of 11 fatty acid and isoprenoid production genes,56 motility and chemotaxis genes,29 N-acetylglucosamine genes,and five siderophore genes.Finally,the antifungal and emulsifying activities demonstrated that strain VCA1 has activity against Fusarium oxysporum strain 45ta using integrated genomic and experimental validation,and the antifungal properties of the Paenibacillus sp.VCA1 has suggested potential use as a biocontrol agent against phytopathogenic fungi,and its continuous study can have beneficial applications in sustainable agriculture and biotechnology.
文摘Extremophiles pose challenges to microbiologists and researchers by inhabiting the environments with extreme conditions such as alkalinity,acidity,dryness,salinity,pressure and high temperature.The research on the extremophilic microbial communities such as the thermophiles,halophiles,psychrophiles and piezophiles has increased exponentially in past couple of decades as of their ability to produce an extensive range of enzymes with stability and catalytic activity under harsh conditions.These features of extremophilic enzymes make them an amazing alternative for applications in biotechnological,textile,detergent,pharmaceutical and food industries.Adding more,these enzymes serve as cornerstone for environmentally conscious and industrial sustainability.Further,advancements in omics approaches provide new insights into discovering the diversity of unculturable microbes.The multi-omics approaches provide a means to explore the extremophilic diversity,find out novel genes,enzymes and essential products with industrial relevance.Thus,the study of the extremophiles and their enzymes with potential applications is emerging in the recent years.The present review focuses on the biodiversity of extremozymes producing microbes,omics approaches for exploring these enzymes and major applications in diverse industries.
文摘This paper critically re-examines the anthropocentric“Goldilocks Zone”paradigm that has dominated the search for extraterrestrial life.As of 2024,more than 5,500 exoplanets have been identified,yet only about 2%are located within the traditionally defined habitable zone(National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA)Exoplanet Archive,2024;Kane et al.,2023).Moreover,the discovery of extremophiles-organisms thriving in high-radiation,extreme heat,or vacuum environments-demonstrates that the boundaries of life far exceed Earth-like conditions(Rothschild&Mancinelli,2001).
文摘During adaptation to different habitat types, both morphological and behavioral traits can undergo divergent selection. Males often fight for status in dominance hierarchies and rank positions predict reproductive success. Ecotypes with reduced fighting abilities should have low reproductive success when migrating into habitats that harbor ecotypes with superior fighting abilities. Livebearing fishes in the Poecilia mexicana-species complex inhabit not only regular freshwater environments, but also independently colonized sulfidic （H2S-containing） habitats in three river drainages. In the current study, we found fighting intensities in staged contests to be considerably lower in some but not all sulfidic surface ecotypes and the sulfidic cave ecotype compared with populations from non-sulfidic surface sites. This is perhaps due to selection imposed by H2S, which hampers oxygen uptake and transport, as well as cellular respiration. Furthermore, migrants from sulfidic habitats may lose fights even if they do not show overall reduced aggressiveness, as phys- iological performance is likely to be challenged in the non-sulfidic environment to which they are not adapted. To test this hypothesis, we simulated migration of H2S-adapted males into H2S-free waters, as well as H2S-adapted cave-dwelling males into sulfidic surface waters. We found that intruders established dominance less often than resident males, independent of whether or not they showed reduced aggressiveness overall. Our study shows that divergent evolution of male aggressive behavior may also contribute to the maintenance of genetic differentiation in this system and we call for more careful evaluation of male fighting abilities in studies on ecological speciation.
文摘Black microcolonial fungi and black yeasts are inhabitants of extreme environments like vulcanic, desert and polar regions, where they are exposed to enhanced temperature alterations and desiccation. They have developed, therefore, extraordinary biologic characteristics which are mainly based on the expression of proteins, however, these are rarely studied and known. The review article presented here is focused on the obstacles and solutions for the proteomic analyses of this very particular fungal species.
文摘The development of Chinese space science and technology plays a great role in promoting the researches in the field of the origin of life.With the multidisciplinary cooperation,there are fruitful achievements in this research field obtained over the past two years.This report summarizes the major progress of the basic researches about the origin of life in China during 2018–2020.
文摘A halotolerant, gram positive, motile and rod, was isolated from the E1 Gol6a lake of Ghardaia, Alegria and screened for its antimicrobial potential. The strain showed an inhibitory effect to gram positive and gram negative bacteria against Cladosporium spp. and a slight inhibitory effect against C. albicans using chloroform as the extraction solvent and the nutrient broth as production medium. 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the isolate named LMB3981 is a new taxon in the family of Bacillaceae （with 96% similarity）. The strain is close to Filobacillus milosensis and Bacillus haloalkaliphilum with 95% similarity. The phenotypic study showed differences between LMB3981 and two strains that are near and have confirmed the results of 16S rRNA sequencing by specific metabolic properties of the strain.
文摘The development of space technology makes the exposure of organisms and molecules to the space environment possible by using the ESA Biopan and Expose facilities and NASA nanosatellites;the aim is to decipher the origin, evolution and distribution of life on Earth and in the Universe. The study of microbial communities thriving in lithic habitats in cold and hot deserts is gathering appreciation when dealing with the limits of life as we know it, the identification of biosignatures for searching life beyond Earth and the validation of the (litho)-Panspermia theory. Cyanobacteria of the genus Chroococcidiopsis dominate rock-dwelling communities in extreme deserts that are considered terrestrial analogues of Mars, like the Dry Valleys in Antarctica, the Atacama Desert in Chile or the Mojave Desert in California. The extraordinary tolerance of these cyanobacteria towards desiccation, ionizing and UV radiation makes them suitable experimental strains which have been already used in astrobiological experiments and already selected for future space missions. Evidence gained so far supports the use of desert cyanobacteria to develop life support systems and insitu resource utilization for the human space exploration and settlement on the Moon or Mars.
文摘“Plasmas” up to a kilometer in size and behaving similarly to multicellular organisms have been filmed on 10 separate NASA space shuttle missions, over 200 miles above Earth within the thermosphere. These self-illuminated “plasmas” are attracted to and may “feed on” electromagnetic radiation. They have different morphologies: 1) cone, 2) cloud, 3) donut, 4) spherical-cylindrical;and have been filmed flying towards and descending from the thermosphere into thunderstorms;congregating by the hundreds and interacting with satellites generating electromagnetic activity;approaching the Space Shuttles. Computerized analysis of flight path trajectories documents these plasmas travel at different velocities from different directions and change their angle of trajectory making 45°, 90°, and 180° shifts and follow each other. They’ve been filmed accelerating, slowing down, stopping, congregating, engaging in “hunter-predatory” behavior and intersecting plasmas leaving a plasma dust trail in their wake. Similar life-like behaviors have been demonstrated by plasmas created experimentally. “Plasmas” may have been photographed in the 1940s by WWII pilots (identified as “Foo fighters”);repeatedly observed and filmed by astronauts and military pilots and classified as Unidentified Aerial—Anomalous Phenomenon. Plasmas are not biological but may represent a form of pre-life that via the incorporation of elements common in space, could result in the synthesis of RNA. Plasmas constitute a fourth state of matter, are attracted to electromagnetic activity, and when observed in the lower atmosphere likely account for many of the UFO-UAP sightings over the centuries.
文摘As documented by NASA space shuttle films and detailed in this report, self-illuminating, pulsating, plasma-like UAP/UFO (“plasmoids”) have multiple shapes and sizes, are attracted to electromagnetic activity, and travel at different velocities from different directions, making 90 to 180-degree turns, as well as colliding, intersecting and piercing other plasma;and have been filmed by U.S. Navy personnel and a U.S. Customs and Border Protection DHC-8 flying above and diving/sinking beneath the ocean;and by NASA following, circling, and hovering near the space shuttles, satellites, and the MIR International Space Station and congregating above and descending into thunderstorms and the lower atmosphere, which is the air corridor favored by commercial and military aircraft;and this may account for reports of UAPs following, harassing, chasing, and “toying with” aircraft. Plasmas also have explosive properties, negatively affect electronics and mental activity (possibly inducing hallucinations of “alien abductions”), pass through glass, plastic, metal, and enter the cockpits of airplanes and have been observed by astronauts inside spacecraft, the MIR and ISS. It is hypothesized that given their propensity to collide, plasmoids may be responsible for at least some unexplained, inexplicable aircraft disasters. Thunder-lightning-storms are the main drivers of Earth’s GEC and direct positive currents into the ionosphere, which attract plasmas. The troposphere also has a positive charge, and the ocean surface under white water and turbulent conditions develops a positive charge, and we hypothesize that this accounts for sightings of UAP in the lower atmosphere and soaring above and diving into the oceans, including, as reported here, shape-shifting UAP replicons that split into or generate additional shape-shifting UAPs as filmed by NASA and U.S. Customs. Plasmoids appear to purposefully interact and engage in complex behaviors, and it is suspected they are sentient and represent a fourth domain of life. Although plasmas in the lower atmosphere may be responsible for UAP sightings over the centuries, including those that appear to “battle” over cities or follow and harass military ships and planes, plasmoids cannot account for all UAPs, which may include extraterrestrial spacecraft from other worlds.
文摘Polar exploration provides crucial insights into climate change,evolution,ancient civilizations,and extremophile survival [1].Despite formidable challenges,continuous efforts reveal valuable resources like ancient ice,fossils,methane,and novel species [2].The extreme cold remains a primary barrier,as average Antarctic and Arctic temperatures range from-49 to-31.4℃,plunging as low as-78℃in the Arctic and proving lethal [3,4].
基金supported by an MBIE Smart Ideas grant(QT-7183)awarded to CCC,MBS,CC,PAG and CRC。
文摘The verrucomicrobial methanotroph,Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,and the microalgae,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1are both thermoacidophilic microorganisms isolated from geothermally heated soils at Rotokawa,Aotearoa-New Zealand.In this work,we used cocultures of Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1 and Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 in batch and continuous systems(45℃,pH 2.5)to assess their biomass productivity and performance;with the goal of removing methane and carbon dioxide from simulated waste gas streams and assessing the resultant biomass for its potential use as single cell protein.Coculture performance was compared to corresponding axenic cultures and the nutritional suitability of resultant biomass was assessed as a single cell protein feedstock.Stable coculture was achieved in both batch and chemostat systems.In batch experiments,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 significantly enhanced growth(29%)and methane oxidation(300%)rates of Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,and complete methane removal was achieved without formation of an explosive gas mixture.In steady state chemostat coculture experiments,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 decreased net volumetric oxygen consumption by 46%,but its oxygenic activity was unable to supply Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1 with the O_(2)required for complete CH4removal.Nevertheless,Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1 benefited from the presence of Galdieria sp.RTK37.1 in a low O_(2)environment;with O_(2)algae-methanotroph cross-feeding playing a fundamental role on their interactions.Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,Galdieria sp.RTK37.1,and their coculture each displayed similar nutritional profiles,with protein quality comparable to soybean meal and fishmeal feeds used for animals.The biomass needed to meet the daily indispensable amino acid requirements of a 62 kg adult human was 568 g for Methylacidiphilum sp.RTK17.1,804 g Galdieria sp.RTK37.1,and 754 g for the coculture,with histidine being the limiting amino acid.These thermoacidophilic cocultures,which have not previously been investigated,offer great potential to convert low(or negative)value industrial gas streams into valuable products(e.g.supplementary biofeedstocks).
基金supported in part by the following research grants:Thai-land Science research and Innovation fund Chulalongkorn University(FOOD_FF_68_121_2300_022)(to RWS)the Singapore Ministry of Ed-ucation MOE-T2EP30123-0007(to RWS&SBP)+1 种基金the Research Institute of Meijo University(to HK)Postdoctoral Fellowship,the Second Century Fund(C2F),Chulalongkorn University(to SS).
文摘A unicellular-colonial cyanobacterium,designated“BRSZ,”was isolated from a neutral-alkaline hot spring in Thai-land.Morphological characterization revealed distinctive features consistent with those of the genus Gloeocapsa.Physiological assessments demonstrated that BRSZ is a moderately thermophilic and halotolerant cyanobacterium with the potential for chemoheterotrophic growth in dark conditions.Molecular phylogenetic analysis based on 16S ribosomal RNA(rRNA)gene sequences placed BRSZ within a well-defined Gloeocapsa clade,a finding cor-roborated by 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer(ITS)rRNA secondary structure analyses.Genome compar-isons,including average nucleotide identity(ANI),genome-to-genome distance(GGD),and digital DNA-DNA hybridization(dDDH),between strain BRSZ and closely related taxa showed an ANI value of 95.45%,near the lower boundary of the species delineation threshold(95-96%).A GGD of 0.0374(>0.0258)and dDDH of 69%(<70%)further supported genomic differentiation.Genome-based analysis revealed a mycosporine-like amino acid biosynthetic gene cluster likely involved in sunscreen compound production.Cultivation-based production of a UV-absorbing compound confirmed the functional relevance of this gene cluster.These findings expand the described diversity within the Gloeocapsa complex and enhance our understanding of the taxonomy of this group.In addition,they underscored the importance of hot spring environments as sources of novel extremophiles.
基金Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region(Grant No.2022D01E96)Stable Support for Youth Teams in Basic Research Field of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(YSBR-119)+1 种基金Leading Talents in Technological Innovation program(2022 TSYCLJ0049)Third Xinjiang Scientific Expedition Program(Grant No.2021xjkk0500).
文摘Desert plants have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive in arid environments,where water scarcity and extreme temperatures pose significant challenges to life.The desert moss Syntrichia caninervis stands out as an exemplary model of extreme desiccation tolerance(DT),offering invaluable insights into plant adaptation to water deficit.This study presents a comprehensive multi-omics analysis of S.caninervis during controlled dehydration and rehydration process,integrating transcriptomic,proteomic,and metabolomic data to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying its remarkable resilience.Our findings reveal a sophisticated,multilayered response characterized by extensive transcriptional reprogramming(3,153 differentially expressed genes),dynamic proteome remodeling(873 differentially expressed proteins),and strategic metabolic reconfiguration(185 differentially abundant metabolites).Key adaptations include the coordinated downregulation of photosynthetic processes,upregulation of stress-responsive genes and proteins,accumulation of protective metabolites,and enhancement of antioxidant systems.Notably,we observed significant temporal asynchrony between transcript and protein levels,underscoring the complexity of post-transcriptional regulation in stress responses.The core mechanisms of S.caninervis DT comprises cellular protection and metabolic dormancy during dehydration,followed by efficient repair and recovery processes upon rehydration.These findings not only advance our understanding of plant evolution and adaptation to extreme environments but also identify potential targets for enhancing drought tolerance in crops and exploring plant survival under extreme environment.By deciphering the molecular basis of extreme DT,this research opens new avenues for addressing agricultural challenges in water-limited environments and expands our knowledge of plant life’s adaptability to harsh terrestrial.
基金financial support from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento(CNPq)Coordenação de Aperfeiçoa-mento de Pessoal de Nível Superior(CAPES)+2 种基金Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico(FNDCT),Fundação de Amparo àPesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais(FAPEMIG)Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia(INCT)Criosfera,Programa Antártico Brasileiro(PROAN-TAR)Brazilian Navy.P.C.is supported by NERC core funding to the British Antarctic Survey’s“Biodiversity Evolution and Adaptation”Team.
文摘In this study,we evaluated the pathogenic potential of the fungi Aspergillus thermomutatus and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa obtained from maritime Antarctic permafrost using in vivo experiments on immunocompromised BALB/c mice.Despite the low mortality observed,immunosuppressed animals infected with A.thermomutatus and R.mucilaginosa exhibited fluctuations in body mass and induced changes in the neuropsychiatric state of the mice.Fungi were recovered from the lungs,spleen,blood,and brain of infected mice at densities similar to but slightly lower than the inoculum up to 5 days post-inoculation.A.thermomutatus infection induced an inflammatory process in the lungs of infected BALB/c mice.In the target organs of animals infected with R.mucilaginosa,a notable fungal load was detected in the brains of infected animals.These results suggest that viable isolates of fungi such as A.thermomutatus and R.mucilaginosa originating from Antarctic permafrost,which is exposed to increasing melt caused by rising temperatures in the region,may present significant pathogenic potential.This highlights that climate change in Antarctica may facilitate the release and dispersal of fungi and other pathogenic microorganisms capable of infecting humans and animals.
基金supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 31290232)National High-Tech Program (Grant No. 2012AA092103-2)National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2011CB808800)
文摘The term ＂extreme environments＂ describes the conditions that deviate from what mesophilic cells can tolerate. These condi- tions are ＂extreme＂ in the eye of mankind, but they may be suitable or even essential living conditions for most microorgan- isms. Hypertherrnophilic microorganisms form a branch at the root of the phylogenetic tree, indicating that early life originated from extreme environments similar to that of modern deep-sea hydrothermal vents, which are characterized by high-tempera- ture and oxygen-limiting conditions. During the inevitable cooling and gradual oxidation process on Earth, microorganisms developed similar mechanisms of adaptation. By studying modem extremophiles, we may be able to decode the mysterious history of their genomic evolution and to reconstruct e~,rly life. Because life itself is a process of energy uptake to maintain a dissipative structure that is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, the energy metabolism of microorganisms determines the path- way of evolution, the structure of an ecosystem, and the physiology of cells. ＂Following energy＂ is an essential approach to understand the boundaries of life and to search for life beyond Earth.
基金This research was financially supported by a grant from Ministry of Sciences and Technology(Grant No.2016YFB0302504)grants from National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.31430003)Tsinghua President Fund also supported this project(Grant No.2015THZ10).
文摘Polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHA)have been produced by some bacteria as bioplastics for many years.Yet their commercialization is still on the way.A few issues are related to the difficulty of PHA commercialization:namely,high cost and instabilities on molecular weights(Mw)and structures,thus instability on thermo-mechanical properties.The high cost is the result of complicated bioprocessing associated with sterilization,low conversion of carbon substrates to PHA products,and slow growth of microorganisms as well as difficulty of downstream separation.Future engineering on PHA producing microorganisms should be focused on contamination resistant bacteria especially extremophiles,developments of engineering approaches for the extremophiles,increase on carbon substrates to PHA conversion and controlling Mw of PHA.The concept proof studies could still be conducted on E.coli or Pseudomonas spp.that are easily used for molecular manipulations.In this review,we will use E.coli and halophiles as examples to show how to engineer bacteria for enhanced PHA biosynthesis and for increasing PHA competitiveness.
基金supported by the Laboratory of Genetics at Wageningen University(The Netherlands),RSCF grant №14-50-00029,RFBR grants №15-04-06975,№15-04-06260(Russia).
文摘The diversity of filamentous fungi that can grow at high ambient pH values(i.e.,8–11)remains largely understudied.Here we study 100 alkalitolerant and alkaliphilic isolates from the soils around the basin of soda lakes in Asia and Africa to assess the major evolutionary lineages and morphologies pertinent to the alkaliphilic trait in filamentous fungi.The Emericellopsis lineage(Hypocreales,Hypocreomycetidae),along with Plectosphaerellaceae(Hypocreomycetidae),Pleosporaceae(Dothideomycetes),Chaetomiaceae(Sordariomycetidae)families appeared to be overrepresented with strong alkalitolerants and effective alkaliphiles.In particular,Sodiomyces species(Plectosphaerellaceae),Acrostalagmus luteoalbus(Plectosphaerellaceae),Emericellopsis alkalina(Hypocreales),Thielavia sp.(Chaetomiaceae),and Alternaria sect.Soda(Pleosporaceae)grew best at high ambient pH.The pH tolerance of Chordomyces antarcticum,Acrostalagmus luteoalbus and some other species was largely affected by the presence of extra Na+in the growth medium.Moderate alkalitolerants included Scopulariopsis members(Microascales),Fusarium,Cladosporium,and many asexual acremonium-like species from Bionectriaceae.Weak alkalitolerants were represented by sporadic isolates of Penicillium,Purpureocillium lilacinum,and Alternaria alternata species,with the growth optimum at neutral or acidic pH.Weak alkalitolerants develop loose dry chains of spores easily dispersed by air.Their presence at low frequency with the growth optimum at neutral or acidic pH leads us to treat them as transient species in the alkaline soils,as those are also ubiquitous saprobes in normal soils.Our phylogenetic analyses show that the alkaliphilic trait in filamentous fungi has evolved several times.Several lineages harboring strong alkalitolerants derived from the known marine-borne fungi(Emericellopsis,Alternaria sect.Phragmosporae),or fall within the fungi associated with halophytic grasses(Pleosporaceae).Soda soils contain a diversity of fungi that range from weak alkalitolerant to alkaliphilic,which in few cases is associated with darkly pigmented mycelium and formation of microsclerotia.The alkaliphilic trait is spread throughout the Ascomycota,and usually juxtaposes with slime-covered polyphyletic acremonium-,verticillium-,gliocladium-types of asexual morphology,hyphae aggregating in chords,and enclosed fruit bodies.
