One caveat to the dinosaur’s extinction is the conclusion that avian dinosaurs survived and became ancestors of birds. Their mobility enabled them to migrate great distances and find the nutrients needed to survive. ...One caveat to the dinosaur’s extinction is the conclusion that avian dinosaurs survived and became ancestors of birds. Their mobility enabled them to migrate great distances and find the nutrients needed to survive. Given this scenario, could the current observable migration of birds (the “dinosaurian offspring”) now be related? Migration is the regular seasonal movement undertaken by many species of birds, with the most common pattern, flying north in the Northern spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the Northern autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions of the south. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food. None of the major North-South migratory pathways fly over the Caribbean but three main fly ways, past to the west of the theorized K-T impact centre. Due to their ability to fly, the “avian Dinosaurs” adapted and survived very quickly in response to the disaster that marked the K-T boundary. It is an interesting speculation that the avian migration that we witness today is rooted in an event that occurred 66 million years ago! But it does explain why the migratory birds mostly fly from Polar summer to polar summer when they could just be as easily fly from Polar zone to the warmer equatorial region and back. In the recent article in Nature by Melanie During about identifying the late spring timing of the “Astro disaster”, it can be cited as consistent with my speculation. A late April early May Impact as suggested by During would have seen these migrations completely. The western migratory routes would have been found to be “luxurious” in vegetation in that first northern autumn after the “Astro-impact” while all eastern routes would have still been barren.展开更多
Mosul Dam is located on the Tigris river, 50 Km NW of Mosul;it is 113 m in height, 3.4 Km in length, 10 m wide in its crest and has a storage capacity of 11.1 billion cubic meters. It is an earth fill dam, constructed...Mosul Dam is located on the Tigris river, 50 Km NW of Mosul;it is 113 m in height, 3.4 Km in length, 10 m wide in its crest and has a storage capacity of 11.1 billion cubic meters. It is an earth fill dam, constructed on bedrocks of Fat’ha Formation, which consists of gypsum beds alternated with marl and limestone, in cyclic nature. The thickness of gypsum beds attains 18 m;they are intensely karstified even in foundation rocks. Therefore, continuous grouting Programme was planned during construction, which was completed in June 1984, with planned operation age of 80 years. Due to insufficient grouting in the foundation, during last years of the last century, the Karstification was enlarged in size and quantity, causing serious problems to the stability of the dam. Since late eighties of the last century, the status of the dam and its probable collapse has caused a panic to the people of Mosul city and near surroundings. Therefore, many attempts were carried out for assessment of the dam;all of them concluded that the Karstification is the main problem and recommended continuous grouting, using modern techniques. In addition, the authorities started to build another “Badush Dam” south of Mosul Dam so that it can stop the first wave if Mosul Dam if collapsed. All geophysical and geological work executed on the dam site;it concluded that the existence of many weaknesses zones, faults and large karstified areas, in different parts of the dam site.展开更多
All strong earthquakes are preceded by branching structures having different durations whose development scheme is partly largely predictable because it follows a well organized and recognizable pattern. By using a se...All strong earthquakes are preceded by branching structures having different durations whose development scheme is partly largely predictable because it follows a well organized and recognizable pattern. By using a seismic sequence hierarchization method, this study graphically explains the preparation process of an earthquake, called “branching structure”. In addition, criteria apt to distinguish the structures that will produce shocks of average magnitude from strong earthquakes’ will be defined. Based on the temporal oscillations of the magnitude values, we explain the procedure for identifying the developmental stages that characterize the energy accumulation stage of the branching structure, in order to early detect the energy release stage’s trigger point and obtain information on how it will develop over time. The study identifies also some pre-signals (trigger points) of various magnitudes in the energy release stage, which allows us to early predict the foreshocks and mainshock time position. The method we developed constitutes a truly innovative approach for the earthquake forecasting analysis, which dramatically differs from those developed so far, as it considers the structure of the seismic sequence not only as a magnitude values’ oscillation, but also as a sequence of developmental stages that may begin much earlier.展开更多
Mosul Dam is an earth fill dam located on the River Tigris northern part of Iraq. The capacity of its reservoir is 11.11 billion cubic meters which makes it the fourth biggest dam in the Middle East. From geological p...Mosul Dam is an earth fill dam located on the River Tigris northern part of Iraq. The capacity of its reservoir is 11.11 billion cubic meters which makes it the fourth biggest dam in the Middle East. From geological perspective, the dam is located on double plunging anticlines. The rocks of the site are mainly composed of highly jointed and karistified alternating beds of limestones, gysum and marls, since the impoundment of the reservoir seepage of water was recognized under the foundation of the dam. To stop or minimize the seepage, intensive grouting operations were conducted. Recent investigations and evaluation of the conditions of the dam indicate that it is in a critical situation. In this paper, consequences of the dam failure are discussed and possible solutions are given.展开更多
In this paper, we examine both the sequence and organisation of major shallow earthquakes occurred in various areas of the world from 1904 to 2017. We aim to describe their major features and how they are connected wi...In this paper, we examine both the sequence and organisation of major shallow earthquakes occurred in various areas of the world from 1904 to 2017. We aim to describe their major features and how they are connected with foreshocks and aftershocks immediately close in time and space. Examining magnitude value’s fluctuations over time, we see that they form a basic pattern, consisting of three maxima, one of which is central, and two or more events preceding and following it, whose magnitude, in some cases, may be comparable. The retrospective analysis of earthquakes’ patterns of high comparable magnitude has allowed their classification along with the development of some statistically significant relationships between epicentral distance and magnitude difference and between time interval and delay among maxima as well as the identification of activation signals predicting their occurrence. The pattern we identified in seismic sequences analysis, in relation to minor shocks-generated activation signals’ positions may be used to obtain useful information for the evolutionary study of seismic sequences and for predicting double and multiple earthquakes. The graphic analysis procedure applied to the pattern enables us to know the period of seismic sequence’s greatest hazard after a strong earthquake.展开更多
We present major and trace element compositions of mineral concentrates comprising garnet xenocrysts,ilmenite,phlogopite,spinel,zircon,and uncommon minerals(titanite,calzirtite,anatase,baddeleyite and pyrochlore)of a ...We present major and trace element compositions of mineral concentrates comprising garnet xenocrysts,ilmenite,phlogopite,spinel,zircon,and uncommon minerals(titanite,calzirtite,anatase,baddeleyite and pyrochlore)of a newly discovered Late Cretaceous kimberlite(U-Pb zircon age 90.0±1.3 Ma;2σ)named Osvaldo Franca 1,located in the Alto Paranaíba Igneous Province(APIP),southeastern Brazil.Pyrope grains are lherzolitic(Lherz-1,Lherz-2 and Lherz-3),harzburgitic(Harz-3)and wehrlitic(Wehr-2).The pyrope xenocrysts cover a wide mantle column in the subcratonic lithosphere(66–143 km;20–43 kbar)at relatively low temperatures(811–875°C).The shallowest part of this mantle is represented by Lherz-1 pyropes(20–32 kbar),which have low-Cr(Cr_(2)O_(3)=1.74–6.89 wt.%)and fractionated middle to heavy rare earth elements(MREE-HREE)pattern.The deepest samples are represented by Lherz-2,Lherz-3,Harz-3,and Wehr-2 pyropes(36–43 kbar).They contain high-Cr contents(Cr_(2)O_(3)=7.36–11.19 wt.%)and are characterized by sinusoidal(Lherz-2 and Wehr-2)and spoon-like(Lherz-3 and Harz-3)REE patterns.According to their REE and trace elements,pyrope xenocrysts have enriched nature(e.g.,Ce and Yb vs.Cr_(2)O_(3)),indicating that the cratonic lithosphere has been affected by a silicate melt with subalkaline/tholeiite composition due to their low Zr,Ti and Y concentrations.Besides minerals with typical kimberlitic signatures,such as ilmenite and zircon,the exotic compositions of phlogopite and ulvöspinel suggest an enriched component in the magma source.The formation of rare mineral phases with strong enrichment of light-REE(LREE)and high field strength elements(HFSE)is attributed to the late-stage kimberlitic melt.We propose a tectonic model where a thermal anomaly,represented by the low-velocity seismic anomaly observed in P-wave seismic tomography images,supplied heat to activate the alkaline magmatism from a metasomatized cratonic mantle source during the late-stages of Gondwana fragmentation and consequent South Atlantic Ocean opening.The metasomatism recorded by mineral phases is a product of long-lived recycling of subducted oceanic plates since the Neoproterozoic(Brasiliano Orogeny)or even older collisional events,contributing to the exotic character of the Osvaldo Fran?a 1 kimberlite,as well as to the cratonic lithospheric mantle.展开更多
Within a time distribution of magnitude values, before any mainshock some earthquake triggering patterns with several features develop, under tectonic processes’ influence, through which it is possible to early ident...Within a time distribution of magnitude values, before any mainshock some earthquake triggering patterns with several features develop, under tectonic processes’ influence, through which it is possible to early identify the preparation phase of big earthquakes. The purpose of this article was to identify and classify the warning patterns that develop before a big earthquake by considering space-time seismicity variations. The methodological approach adopted was of graphical type, based on procedures of technical analysis currently used to estimate the financial markets. In the initial phase of the study we have analyzed the seismic sequences types described in the bibliography (type 1: foreshocks-mainshock-aftershocks, type 2: mainshock-aftershock;type 3: swarm) and the main structure of the seismic cycle, within which maximum and minimum magnitude values characterize the pattern that it develops until the main event changes. Then, we assessed the position of foreshocks, mainshock and aftershocks within the seismic cycle in order to identify the warning pattern that characterized the exact time when the energy emission occurs. As to the evolution normally shown over time, we have grouped the warning patterns in 2 categories: 1) progressive earthquake pattern;2) flash earthquake pattern. Finally, we have made a classification of the warning pattern related to the fluctuations of maximum and minimum magnitude values, compared its form with the mainshock’s focal mechanism and suggested some graphic procedures in order to estimate the mainshock magnitude value associated with each warning pattern. The results we obtained unquestionably allow a better comprehension of preparation process of a large earthquake, improving the earthquakes forecasting probability in the next future.展开更多
Erbil city is constructed in a flat plain with moderate gradient increasing northwards, the plain is dissected by tens of ephemeral wadis. The maximum elevation in the high lands NE of Erbil city is 1062 m (a.s.l.), w...Erbil city is constructed in a flat plain with moderate gradient increasing northwards, the plain is dissected by tens of ephemeral wadis. The maximum elevation in the high lands NE of Erbil city is 1062 m (a.s.l.), whereas the elevation of the center of Erbil city is 420 m (a.s.l.). The average gradient from the highest part to the center of the city is 2.15%, increasing towards northeast to reach 4.79%. The mean annual rainfall is 365 mm, while the average monthly rainfall is about 24.42 mm. The site of the city is mainly covered by alluvial fan sediments. Towards northeast, however, the exposures of the Bia Hassan Formation, which consists of alternation of conglomerate and claystone cover considerable areas (82 km<sup>2</sup>) and form the high lands NE of Erbil city. The exposed rocks are thick claystone alternating with coarse conglomerate. Two very heavy torrential rain events have caused flash floods in Erbil city on 30th October and 17th December 2021. The rainfall intensities were 52 mm/day and 60 mm/day, respectively, causing destructive floods. The most affected areas were Zirin (north of Erbil) and Dara Too (northeast of Erbil), respectively, with very heavy property damages and tens of fatalities. The main reasons for the floods were the partially constructed embankments of the 150 m ring-road, and the urban development within large and wide drainage basins. Different climate data were used for the purpose of this article, with field checks.展开更多
Iraq is one of the most affected countries in the Middle East concerning the occurrences of sand and dust storms. The frequency of the occurrence has increased drastically in the last decade and it is increasing conti...Iraq is one of the most affected countries in the Middle East concerning the occurrences of sand and dust storms. The frequency of the occurrence has increased drastically in the last decade and it is increasing continuously. The events of sand and dust storms are either regional or local. The former, however, is more frequent than the latter. The regional event, generally extends outside the Iraqi territory, into different directions, but usually covers part of Syria, crossing the Iraqi territory towards Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and/or towards the Arabian Gulf, and less frequently extends to Iran. The main causes in the development of sand and dust storms, in Iraq are discussed. The causes are also either regional or local. The former, however, causes more economic losses and harsh effect on the human’s health, as compared with the latter. One of the main reasons behind the development of sand and dust storms is the climatic changes within the region, especially the drastic decrease in the annual rate of rain fall, besides environmental changes, such as drying of the marshes, land degradation, and desertification. From the local causes, the most effective reason is the haphazard driving and military operations, especially in the Iraqi Southern Desert. Prudent management of water resources by using non-conventional resources and adapting suitable irrigation methods can greatly help to overcome this phenomenon and minimize the number of dust storm.展开更多
A strong earthquake is always preceded by groupings of shocks whose identification and understanding constitute a sound method for improving short-term earthquake forecasts. Thanks to a graphical method, we have ident...A strong earthquake is always preceded by groupings of shocks whose identification and understanding constitute a sound method for improving short-term earthquake forecasts. Thanks to a graphical method, we have identified and classified some microsequences and reversed phase repetitive patterns that precede the hazardous events. The seismic microsequences include a series of information useful to know in advance the beginning of energy release and accumulation phases that usually precede and follow a moderate-to-high magnitude earthquake. Their identification and correct interpretation allow us to determine various warning signals. In particular, through the analysis of their shape and position in the seismic sequence we can claim that the strongest earthquakes occur shortly after the formation of some peculiar micro-sequences. The checks carried out on large data sets related to earthquakes occurred in the past have shown that the analysis procedures developed do not depend on the size of the area analyzed while predicting a high percentage of moderate-to-high magnitude earthquakes.展开更多
We are faced with more challenges than ever with respect to the amount,variety,and sheer volume of earth data.Not only do we have data of many different ages and origins,we also have a wide variety of data,much of whi...We are faced with more challenges than ever with respect to the amount,variety,and sheer volume of earth data.Not only do we have data of many different ages and origins,we also have a wide variety of data,much of which has just been recently digitized,or is in a format that can cannot easily be integrated into algorithms,georeferenced data.展开更多
Africa hosts just over 80 percent(%)of the world’s known land-based ore resources of manganese metal and produced some 41.1%of the 18 million tonnes(Mt)of manganese metal in ores,that was mined during 2014.The deposi...Africa hosts just over 80 percent(%)of the world’s known land-based ore resources of manganese metal and produced some 41.1%of the 18 million tonnes(Mt)of manganese metal in ores,that was mined during 2014.The deposits are mainly of sedimentary and supergene origin comprising four major types,namely banded iron formation(BIF)-hosted,black shale-hosted,oolitic and supergene/karst-hosted deposits.展开更多
The current“mega”interest in Lithium resources was spurred by the development of Lithium-Ion batteries to aid in restructuring the world’s reliance on carbon spewing power petroleum reserves.Current resources of li...The current“mega”interest in Lithium resources was spurred by the development of Lithium-Ion batteries to aid in restructuring the world’s reliance on carbon spewing power petroleum reserves.Current resources of lithium recovery have fallen into two main categories—Pegmatite,found worldwide associated with felsic intrusions and Brine Related,and now with development in the Southwest United States of America(SWUS),a third category—Tertiary Volcanic clays,are specifically associated with Tertiary volcanics and major Tectonic Plate interactions.“Active”Plate tectonics is important as both the SWUS,the Lithium Triangle of South America(LTSA)and the Tibetan Plateau of China(TPC)producing tertiary(Miocene)volcanism that is important to the development of Lithium resources.The Tanzanian part of the East Africa Rift System(EARS)has features of both the SWUS,tertiary volcanic related“playas”and Continental rifting,the LTSA,tertiary volcanic related“Brines”and a major Tectonic plate event(subduction of an Oceanic Plate beneath the Continental South American Plate)and the TPC,tertiary volcanics(?)and major tectonic plate event(subduction of the Indian Continental Plate under the Eurasian Continental Plate).As well as the association of peralkaline and metaluminous felsic volcanics with Lithium playas of the SWUS and the EARS(Tanzania)“playas”.These similarities led to an analysis of a volcanic rock in Northeast Tanzania.When it returned 1.76%Lithium,a one-kilometer spaced soil sampling program returned,in consecutive samples over 0.20%Lithium(several samples over 1.0%lithium and a high of 2.24%lithium).It is proposed that these four regions with very similar past and present geologic characteristics,occur nowhere else in the world.That three of them have produced Lithium operations and two of them have identified resources of Lithium clay and“highly”anomalous Lithium clays should be regarded as more than“coincidental”.展开更多
Santorini has attracted the attention of both Geoscientists and Archeologists. The numerous high-angle faults of small dip-slip displacement were ignored by the geoscientists. The formations of domes by high-angle fau...Santorini has attracted the attention of both Geoscientists and Archeologists. The numerous high-angle faults of small dip-slip displacement were ignored by the geoscientists. The formations of domes by high-angle faults were also ignored. The discovery of a buried town, Akrotiri-with excellent buildings and artifacts, by Archaeologists and the destruction of the flourishing Minoan civilization and Knossos (Crete) in c. the same era caused a lot of interest. Plato in his “Dialogues” of Socrates with Kritias and Timaeus talked about a catastrophe of the island of Atlantis. Galanopoulos, who was the first and Archeologists suggested that the “Legend of Atlantis” was associated with the fall of huge Areas in Santorini, due to the “vacuum” after the gigantic amounts of ejecta. They miscalculated the amount of volcanic ejecta and misinterpreted the lineaments on the walls of the so-called “Caldera (s)” due to pseudo-layering. The author using the importance of the high-angle faults proves that the topography is mainly the result of faulting and neither of erosion nor of volcanism. The juxtaposed slopes of Thira-Thiresia formed fold-like structures and there was not any caldera collapse.展开更多
Iraq is located at the extreme northeastern part of the Arabian Plate, which is in collision with the Eurasian Plate. This collision is still onward, and has caused alignment of the evolved structures in NW-SE trend, ...Iraq is located at the extreme northeastern part of the Arabian Plate, which is in collision with the Eurasian Plate. This collision is still onward, and has caused alignment of the evolved structures in NW-SE trend, mainly, especially in the northern, northeastern and eastern sides of Iraq. However, many transversal linear features of NE-SW trend, represented by rivers, streams, valleys, playas, anticlines and offsets are developed, in parallel trend to the main compressional forces created by the aforementioned collision. Many examples from different parts of Iraq confirm the mechanism of their formation through the geological, geomorphological, tectonics and structural aspects. Although the existing linear features are tens of kilometers in length, but almost no surface displacements were reported, except very few, in some parts of Iraq. The given examples are selected to be the most obvious, when geophysical data are available, the surface and subsurface geology of the involved area is correlated to deduce whether the surface expression coincides with the subsurface or otherwise. A brief tectonic history is also given.展开更多
Aquifers can be defined as complex ecological systems. Their description is closely influenced by geometrical and geological parameters, which portray the hydrogeological behaviour of underground systems. This paper r...Aquifers can be defined as complex ecological systems. Their description is closely influenced by geometrical and geological parameters, which portray the hydrogeological behaviour of underground systems. This paper reports a con<span>tribution to assess</span></span><span style="font-family:"">ing</span><span style="font-family:""> groundwater contamination risk in a particular Sicily sector, where deterministic approaches have methodically assessed and mappe</span><span style="font-family:"">d vulnerability and quality of groundwater. In detail, in the coastal area of Acqued<span>olci (Northern Sicily), already intensely surveyed in the frame of interdisciplinary projects on geological risk, implementing models and systems ha</span>ve been experimented, also considering fuzzy logic. Cartography issues are he<span>re presented and compared, with particular regard to the effect of stoc</span>h<span>astic hydrogeo</span><span>logical elements (<i>i.e.</i> “depth to water”), locally characterized by variability for simultaneous climate, overdraft, irrigation and sea encroachm</span>ent. </span><span style="font-family:"">Th<span>e </span></span><span style="font-family:"">authors show how fuzzy logic, applied to vulnerability settings, contributes to a better comprehension of the passive scenery offered by aquifers in</span><span style="font-family:""> Acquedolci Sicily area.展开更多
The analysis of seismic sequences is the primary objective for the study of the evolution of seismicity in a particular area, in order to determine a greater awareness of its seismogenic potential. The eventual determ...The analysis of seismic sequences is the primary objective for the study of the evolution of seismicity in a particular area, in order to determine a greater awareness of its seismogenic potential. The eventual determination of the epicenters of future earthquakes associated with the expected magnitude can be the tool to better seismic prevention. In this paper, we present some procedures for epicenter prediction of a strong earthquake, developed after a careful analysis of the fluctuations of latitude and longitude values in time and space and distance, between seismic events</span><span style="color:red;"> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">occurred in a specific area. By analyzing several seismic sequences, whose data have been taken from the numerous catalogs on seismicity, we noticed that the epicenters of the earthquakes that precede the strongest ones, tend to converge towards the epicenter where the strong earthquake will happen, following a pattern and a repetitive directional trend. Analysis of the pattern and trend, which represent the fluctuation of events and distances between pairs of earthquakes, has allowed us to localize the epicentral area of a future earthquake, which more reliably complements the other forecasting methods we have developed in the past. Retrospective tests performed on past seismic sequences have shown that the predictive procedures developed are able to identify in a simple way and in the short term, the area where a strong earthquake is most likely to occur.展开更多
The time analysis of seismic events preceding several strong earthquakes occurred in recent decades throughout the world, has highlighted some foreshocks’ characteristics, which are helpful for their discrimination c...The time analysis of seismic events preceding several strong earthquakes occurred in recent decades throughout the world, has highlighted some foreshocks’ characteristics, which are helpful for their discrimination compared to other types of events. These features can be identified within the seismic sequence and used as strong events’ precursors. Through the energy release pattern analysis, which precedes any strong earthquakes, in this study we describe some graphical procedures suitable for distinguishing a foreshock from any other type of earthquake. We have broadly divided foreshocks into two classes, depending on their position within the energy release pattern, by describing some relationships between the foreshock’s magnitude and the following earthquake’s. The results obtained show how the energy release pattern of some major earthquakes has distinctive features and repeatability which it is possible to obtain information from in order to perform sufficiently reliable short-term forecasts.展开更多
Tigris and Euphrates are the main rivers in Iraq. The former has 5 main tributaries while the latter has no tributaries within Iraq. All these rivers exhibit meandering and/or shifting of their courses due to many rea...Tigris and Euphrates are the main rivers in Iraq. The former has 5 main tributaries while the latter has no tributaries within Iraq. All these rivers exhibit meandering and/or shifting of their courses due to many reasons;such as mass movements and alluvial fan's development. The meandering and shifting of river courses due to mass movements is dealt with in this study. Many examples are given from different parts of Iraq within different rivers and streams. In each case, the geology of the involved area is described;the reasons of the shifting and/or meandering of the river course are given. GIS technique was used to determine the coverage of the involved area. Landsat, Google Earth and DEM images were used to indicate the suffered areas from shifting and meandering of the rivers and streams. When possible, age of the shifting and/or meandering of the river and stream courses was estimated;using exposure age determination;mainly depending on the presence of river terraces, erosional forms, vegetation cover and the maturity of the involved area. Some of the given examples of shifting of river courses were found to be still active;others are inactive. In many cases, indications for very large mass movement phenomena were seen. Moreover, some of the large involved areas are highly populated, others includes few houses and/ or farms. The majority of the meanders are developed due to mass movement phenomena;others are caused by alluvial fans and/or tectonic features, lime plunging of anticlines.展开更多
Al-Batin alluvial fan is one of the largest alluvial fans in Iraq, especially in the Iraqi Southern Desert. Its eastern and southern limits form parts of the Iraqi-Kuwait international borders. The fan is deposited by...Al-Batin alluvial fan is one of the largest alluvial fans in Iraq, especially in the Iraqi Southern Desert. Its eastern and southern limits form parts of the Iraqi-Kuwait international borders. The fan is deposited by Wadi Al-Batin, the last apex being on the southern limits of the main wide depression formed by the active Abu Jir-Euphrates Fault Zone. The main trend of the fan is almost SW-NE. The length and the maximum width of the fan are 110.192 Km and 119.1 Km, respectively, whereas the slope along its length is 0.7°. The fan is covered by gypcrete sheet with thickness varying from (0.5 - 1.5) m. Four stages were recognized within the fan, which is dated to be Pleistocene in age. The four stages are marked by clear height differences. The deposition of the alluvial fan is highly affected by the activity of the active Abu Jir-Euphrates Fault Zone, which is represented on the surface as a wide shallow depression in which the fan is laid down by Wadi Al-Batin. The continuous deposition of the fan has affected the course of the Euphrates Formation within Hammar Marsh and also the course of Khor Al-Zubair in its upper reaches south of Al-Qurna, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers merge together. Also there is a trace of ancient distributary of the Euphrates River that was flowing directly to the Arabian Gulf, through an estuary, which is abandoned and does not exist anymore.展开更多
文摘One caveat to the dinosaur’s extinction is the conclusion that avian dinosaurs survived and became ancestors of birds. Their mobility enabled them to migrate great distances and find the nutrients needed to survive. Given this scenario, could the current observable migration of birds (the “dinosaurian offspring”) now be related? Migration is the regular seasonal movement undertaken by many species of birds, with the most common pattern, flying north in the Northern spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the Northern autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions of the south. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food. None of the major North-South migratory pathways fly over the Caribbean but three main fly ways, past to the west of the theorized K-T impact centre. Due to their ability to fly, the “avian Dinosaurs” adapted and survived very quickly in response to the disaster that marked the K-T boundary. It is an interesting speculation that the avian migration that we witness today is rooted in an event that occurred 66 million years ago! But it does explain why the migratory birds mostly fly from Polar summer to polar summer when they could just be as easily fly from Polar zone to the warmer equatorial region and back. In the recent article in Nature by Melanie During about identifying the late spring timing of the “Astro disaster”, it can be cited as consistent with my speculation. A late April early May Impact as suggested by During would have seen these migrations completely. The western migratory routes would have been found to be “luxurious” in vegetation in that first northern autumn after the “Astro-impact” while all eastern routes would have still been barren.
文摘Mosul Dam is located on the Tigris river, 50 Km NW of Mosul;it is 113 m in height, 3.4 Km in length, 10 m wide in its crest and has a storage capacity of 11.1 billion cubic meters. It is an earth fill dam, constructed on bedrocks of Fat’ha Formation, which consists of gypsum beds alternated with marl and limestone, in cyclic nature. The thickness of gypsum beds attains 18 m;they are intensely karstified even in foundation rocks. Therefore, continuous grouting Programme was planned during construction, which was completed in June 1984, with planned operation age of 80 years. Due to insufficient grouting in the foundation, during last years of the last century, the Karstification was enlarged in size and quantity, causing serious problems to the stability of the dam. Since late eighties of the last century, the status of the dam and its probable collapse has caused a panic to the people of Mosul city and near surroundings. Therefore, many attempts were carried out for assessment of the dam;all of them concluded that the Karstification is the main problem and recommended continuous grouting, using modern techniques. In addition, the authorities started to build another “Badush Dam” south of Mosul Dam so that it can stop the first wave if Mosul Dam if collapsed. All geophysical and geological work executed on the dam site;it concluded that the existence of many weaknesses zones, faults and large karstified areas, in different parts of the dam site.
文摘All strong earthquakes are preceded by branching structures having different durations whose development scheme is partly largely predictable because it follows a well organized and recognizable pattern. By using a seismic sequence hierarchization method, this study graphically explains the preparation process of an earthquake, called “branching structure”. In addition, criteria apt to distinguish the structures that will produce shocks of average magnitude from strong earthquakes’ will be defined. Based on the temporal oscillations of the magnitude values, we explain the procedure for identifying the developmental stages that characterize the energy accumulation stage of the branching structure, in order to early detect the energy release stage’s trigger point and obtain information on how it will develop over time. The study identifies also some pre-signals (trigger points) of various magnitudes in the energy release stage, which allows us to early predict the foreshocks and mainshock time position. The method we developed constitutes a truly innovative approach for the earthquake forecasting analysis, which dramatically differs from those developed so far, as it considers the structure of the seismic sequence not only as a magnitude values’ oscillation, but also as a sequence of developmental stages that may begin much earlier.
文摘Mosul Dam is an earth fill dam located on the River Tigris northern part of Iraq. The capacity of its reservoir is 11.11 billion cubic meters which makes it the fourth biggest dam in the Middle East. From geological perspective, the dam is located on double plunging anticlines. The rocks of the site are mainly composed of highly jointed and karistified alternating beds of limestones, gysum and marls, since the impoundment of the reservoir seepage of water was recognized under the foundation of the dam. To stop or minimize the seepage, intensive grouting operations were conducted. Recent investigations and evaluation of the conditions of the dam indicate that it is in a critical situation. In this paper, consequences of the dam failure are discussed and possible solutions are given.
文摘In this paper, we examine both the sequence and organisation of major shallow earthquakes occurred in various areas of the world from 1904 to 2017. We aim to describe their major features and how they are connected with foreshocks and aftershocks immediately close in time and space. Examining magnitude value’s fluctuations over time, we see that they form a basic pattern, consisting of three maxima, one of which is central, and two or more events preceding and following it, whose magnitude, in some cases, may be comparable. The retrospective analysis of earthquakes’ patterns of high comparable magnitude has allowed their classification along with the development of some statistically significant relationships between epicentral distance and magnitude difference and between time interval and delay among maxima as well as the identification of activation signals predicting their occurrence. The pattern we identified in seismic sequences analysis, in relation to minor shocks-generated activation signals’ positions may be used to obtain useful information for the evolutionary study of seismic sequences and for predicting double and multiple earthquakes. The graphic analysis procedure applied to the pattern enables us to know the period of seismic sequence’s greatest hazard after a strong earthquake.
文摘We present major and trace element compositions of mineral concentrates comprising garnet xenocrysts,ilmenite,phlogopite,spinel,zircon,and uncommon minerals(titanite,calzirtite,anatase,baddeleyite and pyrochlore)of a newly discovered Late Cretaceous kimberlite(U-Pb zircon age 90.0±1.3 Ma;2σ)named Osvaldo Franca 1,located in the Alto Paranaíba Igneous Province(APIP),southeastern Brazil.Pyrope grains are lherzolitic(Lherz-1,Lherz-2 and Lherz-3),harzburgitic(Harz-3)and wehrlitic(Wehr-2).The pyrope xenocrysts cover a wide mantle column in the subcratonic lithosphere(66–143 km;20–43 kbar)at relatively low temperatures(811–875°C).The shallowest part of this mantle is represented by Lherz-1 pyropes(20–32 kbar),which have low-Cr(Cr_(2)O_(3)=1.74–6.89 wt.%)and fractionated middle to heavy rare earth elements(MREE-HREE)pattern.The deepest samples are represented by Lherz-2,Lherz-3,Harz-3,and Wehr-2 pyropes(36–43 kbar).They contain high-Cr contents(Cr_(2)O_(3)=7.36–11.19 wt.%)and are characterized by sinusoidal(Lherz-2 and Wehr-2)and spoon-like(Lherz-3 and Harz-3)REE patterns.According to their REE and trace elements,pyrope xenocrysts have enriched nature(e.g.,Ce and Yb vs.Cr_(2)O_(3)),indicating that the cratonic lithosphere has been affected by a silicate melt with subalkaline/tholeiite composition due to their low Zr,Ti and Y concentrations.Besides minerals with typical kimberlitic signatures,such as ilmenite and zircon,the exotic compositions of phlogopite and ulvöspinel suggest an enriched component in the magma source.The formation of rare mineral phases with strong enrichment of light-REE(LREE)and high field strength elements(HFSE)is attributed to the late-stage kimberlitic melt.We propose a tectonic model where a thermal anomaly,represented by the low-velocity seismic anomaly observed in P-wave seismic tomography images,supplied heat to activate the alkaline magmatism from a metasomatized cratonic mantle source during the late-stages of Gondwana fragmentation and consequent South Atlantic Ocean opening.The metasomatism recorded by mineral phases is a product of long-lived recycling of subducted oceanic plates since the Neoproterozoic(Brasiliano Orogeny)or even older collisional events,contributing to the exotic character of the Osvaldo Fran?a 1 kimberlite,as well as to the cratonic lithospheric mantle.
文摘Within a time distribution of magnitude values, before any mainshock some earthquake triggering patterns with several features develop, under tectonic processes’ influence, through which it is possible to early identify the preparation phase of big earthquakes. The purpose of this article was to identify and classify the warning patterns that develop before a big earthquake by considering space-time seismicity variations. The methodological approach adopted was of graphical type, based on procedures of technical analysis currently used to estimate the financial markets. In the initial phase of the study we have analyzed the seismic sequences types described in the bibliography (type 1: foreshocks-mainshock-aftershocks, type 2: mainshock-aftershock;type 3: swarm) and the main structure of the seismic cycle, within which maximum and minimum magnitude values characterize the pattern that it develops until the main event changes. Then, we assessed the position of foreshocks, mainshock and aftershocks within the seismic cycle in order to identify the warning pattern that characterized the exact time when the energy emission occurs. As to the evolution normally shown over time, we have grouped the warning patterns in 2 categories: 1) progressive earthquake pattern;2) flash earthquake pattern. Finally, we have made a classification of the warning pattern related to the fluctuations of maximum and minimum magnitude values, compared its form with the mainshock’s focal mechanism and suggested some graphic procedures in order to estimate the mainshock magnitude value associated with each warning pattern. The results we obtained unquestionably allow a better comprehension of preparation process of a large earthquake, improving the earthquakes forecasting probability in the next future.
文摘Erbil city is constructed in a flat plain with moderate gradient increasing northwards, the plain is dissected by tens of ephemeral wadis. The maximum elevation in the high lands NE of Erbil city is 1062 m (a.s.l.), whereas the elevation of the center of Erbil city is 420 m (a.s.l.). The average gradient from the highest part to the center of the city is 2.15%, increasing towards northeast to reach 4.79%. The mean annual rainfall is 365 mm, while the average monthly rainfall is about 24.42 mm. The site of the city is mainly covered by alluvial fan sediments. Towards northeast, however, the exposures of the Bia Hassan Formation, which consists of alternation of conglomerate and claystone cover considerable areas (82 km<sup>2</sup>) and form the high lands NE of Erbil city. The exposed rocks are thick claystone alternating with coarse conglomerate. Two very heavy torrential rain events have caused flash floods in Erbil city on 30th October and 17th December 2021. The rainfall intensities were 52 mm/day and 60 mm/day, respectively, causing destructive floods. The most affected areas were Zirin (north of Erbil) and Dara Too (northeast of Erbil), respectively, with very heavy property damages and tens of fatalities. The main reasons for the floods were the partially constructed embankments of the 150 m ring-road, and the urban development within large and wide drainage basins. Different climate data were used for the purpose of this article, with field checks.
文摘Iraq is one of the most affected countries in the Middle East concerning the occurrences of sand and dust storms. The frequency of the occurrence has increased drastically in the last decade and it is increasing continuously. The events of sand and dust storms are either regional or local. The former, however, is more frequent than the latter. The regional event, generally extends outside the Iraqi territory, into different directions, but usually covers part of Syria, crossing the Iraqi territory towards Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and/or towards the Arabian Gulf, and less frequently extends to Iran. The main causes in the development of sand and dust storms, in Iraq are discussed. The causes are also either regional or local. The former, however, causes more economic losses and harsh effect on the human’s health, as compared with the latter. One of the main reasons behind the development of sand and dust storms is the climatic changes within the region, especially the drastic decrease in the annual rate of rain fall, besides environmental changes, such as drying of the marshes, land degradation, and desertification. From the local causes, the most effective reason is the haphazard driving and military operations, especially in the Iraqi Southern Desert. Prudent management of water resources by using non-conventional resources and adapting suitable irrigation methods can greatly help to overcome this phenomenon and minimize the number of dust storm.
文摘A strong earthquake is always preceded by groupings of shocks whose identification and understanding constitute a sound method for improving short-term earthquake forecasts. Thanks to a graphical method, we have identified and classified some microsequences and reversed phase repetitive patterns that precede the hazardous events. The seismic microsequences include a series of information useful to know in advance the beginning of energy release and accumulation phases that usually precede and follow a moderate-to-high magnitude earthquake. Their identification and correct interpretation allow us to determine various warning signals. In particular, through the analysis of their shape and position in the seismic sequence we can claim that the strongest earthquakes occur shortly after the formation of some peculiar micro-sequences. The checks carried out on large data sets related to earthquakes occurred in the past have shown that the analysis procedures developed do not depend on the size of the area analyzed while predicting a high percentage of moderate-to-high magnitude earthquakes.
基金supported by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and collaborations with the Texas A&M University-Texarkana.
文摘We are faced with more challenges than ever with respect to the amount,variety,and sheer volume of earth data.Not only do we have data of many different ages and origins,we also have a wide variety of data,much of which has just been recently digitized,or is in a format that can cannot easily be integrated into algorithms,georeferenced data.
文摘Africa hosts just over 80 percent(%)of the world’s known land-based ore resources of manganese metal and produced some 41.1%of the 18 million tonnes(Mt)of manganese metal in ores,that was mined during 2014.The deposits are mainly of sedimentary and supergene origin comprising four major types,namely banded iron formation(BIF)-hosted,black shale-hosted,oolitic and supergene/karst-hosted deposits.
文摘The current“mega”interest in Lithium resources was spurred by the development of Lithium-Ion batteries to aid in restructuring the world’s reliance on carbon spewing power petroleum reserves.Current resources of lithium recovery have fallen into two main categories—Pegmatite,found worldwide associated with felsic intrusions and Brine Related,and now with development in the Southwest United States of America(SWUS),a third category—Tertiary Volcanic clays,are specifically associated with Tertiary volcanics and major Tectonic Plate interactions.“Active”Plate tectonics is important as both the SWUS,the Lithium Triangle of South America(LTSA)and the Tibetan Plateau of China(TPC)producing tertiary(Miocene)volcanism that is important to the development of Lithium resources.The Tanzanian part of the East Africa Rift System(EARS)has features of both the SWUS,tertiary volcanic related“playas”and Continental rifting,the LTSA,tertiary volcanic related“Brines”and a major Tectonic plate event(subduction of an Oceanic Plate beneath the Continental South American Plate)and the TPC,tertiary volcanics(?)and major tectonic plate event(subduction of the Indian Continental Plate under the Eurasian Continental Plate).As well as the association of peralkaline and metaluminous felsic volcanics with Lithium playas of the SWUS and the EARS(Tanzania)“playas”.These similarities led to an analysis of a volcanic rock in Northeast Tanzania.When it returned 1.76%Lithium,a one-kilometer spaced soil sampling program returned,in consecutive samples over 0.20%Lithium(several samples over 1.0%lithium and a high of 2.24%lithium).It is proposed that these four regions with very similar past and present geologic characteristics,occur nowhere else in the world.That three of them have produced Lithium operations and two of them have identified resources of Lithium clay and“highly”anomalous Lithium clays should be regarded as more than“coincidental”.
文摘Santorini has attracted the attention of both Geoscientists and Archeologists. The numerous high-angle faults of small dip-slip displacement were ignored by the geoscientists. The formations of domes by high-angle faults were also ignored. The discovery of a buried town, Akrotiri-with excellent buildings and artifacts, by Archaeologists and the destruction of the flourishing Minoan civilization and Knossos (Crete) in c. the same era caused a lot of interest. Plato in his “Dialogues” of Socrates with Kritias and Timaeus talked about a catastrophe of the island of Atlantis. Galanopoulos, who was the first and Archeologists suggested that the “Legend of Atlantis” was associated with the fall of huge Areas in Santorini, due to the “vacuum” after the gigantic amounts of ejecta. They miscalculated the amount of volcanic ejecta and misinterpreted the lineaments on the walls of the so-called “Caldera (s)” due to pseudo-layering. The author using the importance of the high-angle faults proves that the topography is mainly the result of faulting and neither of erosion nor of volcanism. The juxtaposed slopes of Thira-Thiresia formed fold-like structures and there was not any caldera collapse.
文摘Iraq is located at the extreme northeastern part of the Arabian Plate, which is in collision with the Eurasian Plate. This collision is still onward, and has caused alignment of the evolved structures in NW-SE trend, mainly, especially in the northern, northeastern and eastern sides of Iraq. However, many transversal linear features of NE-SW trend, represented by rivers, streams, valleys, playas, anticlines and offsets are developed, in parallel trend to the main compressional forces created by the aforementioned collision. Many examples from different parts of Iraq confirm the mechanism of their formation through the geological, geomorphological, tectonics and structural aspects. Although the existing linear features are tens of kilometers in length, but almost no surface displacements were reported, except very few, in some parts of Iraq. The given examples are selected to be the most obvious, when geophysical data are available, the surface and subsurface geology of the involved area is correlated to deduce whether the surface expression coincides with the subsurface or otherwise. A brief tectonic history is also given.
文摘Aquifers can be defined as complex ecological systems. Their description is closely influenced by geometrical and geological parameters, which portray the hydrogeological behaviour of underground systems. This paper reports a con<span>tribution to assess</span></span><span style="font-family:"">ing</span><span style="font-family:""> groundwater contamination risk in a particular Sicily sector, where deterministic approaches have methodically assessed and mappe</span><span style="font-family:"">d vulnerability and quality of groundwater. In detail, in the coastal area of Acqued<span>olci (Northern Sicily), already intensely surveyed in the frame of interdisciplinary projects on geological risk, implementing models and systems ha</span>ve been experimented, also considering fuzzy logic. Cartography issues are he<span>re presented and compared, with particular regard to the effect of stoc</span>h<span>astic hydrogeo</span><span>logical elements (<i>i.e.</i> “depth to water”), locally characterized by variability for simultaneous climate, overdraft, irrigation and sea encroachm</span>ent. </span><span style="font-family:"">Th<span>e </span></span><span style="font-family:"">authors show how fuzzy logic, applied to vulnerability settings, contributes to a better comprehension of the passive scenery offered by aquifers in</span><span style="font-family:""> Acquedolci Sicily area.
文摘The analysis of seismic sequences is the primary objective for the study of the evolution of seismicity in a particular area, in order to determine a greater awareness of its seismogenic potential. The eventual determination of the epicenters of future earthquakes associated with the expected magnitude can be the tool to better seismic prevention. In this paper, we present some procedures for epicenter prediction of a strong earthquake, developed after a careful analysis of the fluctuations of latitude and longitude values in time and space and distance, between seismic events</span><span style="color:red;"> </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">occurred in a specific area. By analyzing several seismic sequences, whose data have been taken from the numerous catalogs on seismicity, we noticed that the epicenters of the earthquakes that precede the strongest ones, tend to converge towards the epicenter where the strong earthquake will happen, following a pattern and a repetitive directional trend. Analysis of the pattern and trend, which represent the fluctuation of events and distances between pairs of earthquakes, has allowed us to localize the epicentral area of a future earthquake, which more reliably complements the other forecasting methods we have developed in the past. Retrospective tests performed on past seismic sequences have shown that the predictive procedures developed are able to identify in a simple way and in the short term, the area where a strong earthquake is most likely to occur.
文摘The time analysis of seismic events preceding several strong earthquakes occurred in recent decades throughout the world, has highlighted some foreshocks’ characteristics, which are helpful for their discrimination compared to other types of events. These features can be identified within the seismic sequence and used as strong events’ precursors. Through the energy release pattern analysis, which precedes any strong earthquakes, in this study we describe some graphical procedures suitable for distinguishing a foreshock from any other type of earthquake. We have broadly divided foreshocks into two classes, depending on their position within the energy release pattern, by describing some relationships between the foreshock’s magnitude and the following earthquake’s. The results obtained show how the energy release pattern of some major earthquakes has distinctive features and repeatability which it is possible to obtain information from in order to perform sufficiently reliable short-term forecasts.
文摘Tigris and Euphrates are the main rivers in Iraq. The former has 5 main tributaries while the latter has no tributaries within Iraq. All these rivers exhibit meandering and/or shifting of their courses due to many reasons;such as mass movements and alluvial fan's development. The meandering and shifting of river courses due to mass movements is dealt with in this study. Many examples are given from different parts of Iraq within different rivers and streams. In each case, the geology of the involved area is described;the reasons of the shifting and/or meandering of the river course are given. GIS technique was used to determine the coverage of the involved area. Landsat, Google Earth and DEM images were used to indicate the suffered areas from shifting and meandering of the rivers and streams. When possible, age of the shifting and/or meandering of the river and stream courses was estimated;using exposure age determination;mainly depending on the presence of river terraces, erosional forms, vegetation cover and the maturity of the involved area. Some of the given examples of shifting of river courses were found to be still active;others are inactive. In many cases, indications for very large mass movement phenomena were seen. Moreover, some of the large involved areas are highly populated, others includes few houses and/ or farms. The majority of the meanders are developed due to mass movement phenomena;others are caused by alluvial fans and/or tectonic features, lime plunging of anticlines.
文摘Al-Batin alluvial fan is one of the largest alluvial fans in Iraq, especially in the Iraqi Southern Desert. Its eastern and southern limits form parts of the Iraqi-Kuwait international borders. The fan is deposited by Wadi Al-Batin, the last apex being on the southern limits of the main wide depression formed by the active Abu Jir-Euphrates Fault Zone. The main trend of the fan is almost SW-NE. The length and the maximum width of the fan are 110.192 Km and 119.1 Km, respectively, whereas the slope along its length is 0.7°. The fan is covered by gypcrete sheet with thickness varying from (0.5 - 1.5) m. Four stages were recognized within the fan, which is dated to be Pleistocene in age. The four stages are marked by clear height differences. The deposition of the alluvial fan is highly affected by the activity of the active Abu Jir-Euphrates Fault Zone, which is represented on the surface as a wide shallow depression in which the fan is laid down by Wadi Al-Batin. The continuous deposition of the fan has affected the course of the Euphrates Formation within Hammar Marsh and also the course of Khor Al-Zubair in its upper reaches south of Al-Qurna, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers merge together. Also there is a trace of ancient distributary of the Euphrates River that was flowing directly to the Arabian Gulf, through an estuary, which is abandoned and does not exist anymore.
