Diabetic foot(DF)is a major public health concern.As evident from numerous previous studies,supervision of DF ulcer(DFU)is crucial,and a specific quality check-up is needed.Patients should be educated about glycaemic ...Diabetic foot(DF)is a major public health concern.As evident from numerous previous studies,supervision of DF ulcer(DFU)is crucial,and a specific quality check-up is needed.Patients should be educated about glycaemic management,DFUs,foot lesions,proper care for injuries,diet,and surgery.Certain reasonably priced treatments,such as hyperbaric oxygen and vacuum-assisted closure therapy,are also available for DFUs,along with modern wound care products and techniques.Nonetheless,DF care(cleaning,applying antimicrobial cream when wounded,and foot reflexology),blood glucose monitoring to control diabetes,and monthly or quarterly examinations in individuals with diabetes are effective in managing DFUs.Between 50%and 80%of DF infections are preventable.Regardless of the intensity of the lesion,it needs to be treated carefully and checked daily during infection.Tissue regeneration can be aided by cleaning,dressing,and application of topical medicines.The choice of shoes is also important because it affects blood circulation and nerve impulses.In general,regular check-ups,monitoring of the patient’s condition,measuring blood glucose levels,and providing frequent guidance regarding DFU care are crucial.Finally,this important clinical problem requires involvement of multiple professionals to properly manage it.展开更多
This study was to investigate the current trends of multiple drug resistance in bacteria against antibiotics for the proper empirical treatmen.Clinical isolates were collected from community-acquired infection of urin...This study was to investigate the current trends of multiple drug resistance in bacteria against antibiotics for the proper empirical treatmen.Clinical isolates were collected from community-acquired infection of urinary tract patients in Aligarh India from March 1999 to August 1999.Antibiotic susceptibility test was performed,using the disc diffusion method followed by plasmid isolation by the method of Kado and Liu.Transfer experiments were performed by the method of Lederberg and Cohen.Clinical study revealed that this infection was more common in young women.Various strains of E.coli isolated during the course of study were found to show multiple antibiotic resistance which was further characterized as plasmid-borne drug resistance.This study shows that E.coli may be one of the important causative agents of urinary tract infection(UTI) in young women.展开更多
Negative thermal expansion(NTE) behavior has roused wide interest for the control of thermomechanical properties of functional materials.Although NTE behaviors have been found in kinds of compounds,it remains challeng...Negative thermal expansion(NTE) behavior has roused wide interest for the control of thermomechanical properties of functional materials.Although NTE behaviors have been found in kinds of compounds,it remains challenging for polymers to achieve intrinsic NTE property.In this work,we systematically studied the conformational change of dibenzocyclooctadiene(DBCOD) derivatives between chair(C) and twist-boat(TB) forms based on density-functional theo ry(DFT) calculations,and found clear evidence of the relationship between the structure of DBCOD units and the thermal contraction behavior of the related polymers.In order to obtain the polymer with NTE property,two conditions should be met for the thermal contracting DBCOD related units as follows:(i) the TB conformation can turn into C conformation as the temperature increases,and(ii) the volume of C conformation is smaller than that of TB conformation.This rule should offer a guidance to exploration of the new intrinsic NTE polymers in the future.展开更多
BACKGROUND Colorectal polyps that develop via the conventional adenoma-carcinoma sequence[e.g.,tubular adenoma(TA)]often progress to malignancy and are closely associated with changes in the composition of the gut mic...BACKGROUND Colorectal polyps that develop via the conventional adenoma-carcinoma sequence[e.g.,tubular adenoma(TA)]often progress to malignancy and are closely associated with changes in the composition of the gut microbiome.There is limited research concerning the microbial functions and gut microbiomes associated with colorectal polyps that arise through the serrated polyp pathway,such as hyperplastic polyps(HP).Exploration of microbiome alterations asso-ciated with HP and TA would improve the understanding of mechanisms by which specific microbes and their metabolic pathways contribute to colorectal carcinogenesis.AIM To investigate gut microbiome signatures,microbial associations,and microbial functions in HP and TA patients.METHODS Full-length 16S rRNA sequencing was used to characterize the gut microbiome in stool samples from control participants without polyps[control group(CT),n=40],patients with HP(n=52),and patients with TA(n=60).Significant differences in gut microbiome composition and functional mechanisms were identified between the CT group and patients with HP or TA.Analytical techniques in this study included differential abundance analysis,co-occurrence network analysis,and differential pathway analysis.RESULTS Colorectal cancer(CRC)-associated bacteria,including Streptococcus gallolyticus(S.gallolyticus),Bacteroides fragilis,and Clostridium symbiosum,were identified as characteristic microbial species in TA patients.Mediterraneibacter gnavus,associated with dysbiosis and gastrointestinal diseases,was significantly differentially abundant in the HP and TA groups.Functional pathway analysis revealed that HP patients exhibited enrichment in the sulfur oxidation pathway exclusively,whereas TA patients showed dominance in pathways related to secondary metabolite biosynthesis(e.g.,mevalonate);S.gallolyticus was a major contributor.Co-occurrence network and dynamic network analyses revealed co-occurrence of dysbiosis-associated bacteria in HP patients,whereas TA patients exhibited co-occurrence of CRC-associated bacteria.Furthermore,the co-occurrence of SCFA-producing bacteria was lower in TA patients than HP patients.CONCLUSION This study revealed distinct gut microbiome signatures associated with pathways of colorectal polyp development,providing insights concerning the roles of microbial species,functional pathways,and microbial interactions in colorectal carcinogenesis.展开更多
Proteases are important industrial enzymes that account for about 60% of the total enzyme market globally due to their large application in food, feed, textile and pharmaceutical industries. The effect of salt stress ...Proteases are important industrial enzymes that account for about 60% of the total enzyme market globally due to their large application in food, feed, textile and pharmaceutical industries. The effect of salt stress on protease production was evaluated on Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. The enzyme production was enhanced by stepwise optimization of the culture parameters, notably, carbon source, nitrogen source, pH, and temperature of the submerged fermentation process while using a minimal salt media and casein as substrate for the protease activity. The fungi species were found to be good producers of both acid and alkaline proteases under 4% salt stress condition. The optimum culture conditions for alkaline protease production by Aspergillus flavus were sucrose 4%, peptone 1%, pH 8 at 40°C with maximum enzymatic activities of 8.85 mM/min/mg protein, 5.22 mM/min/mg protein, 3.75 mM/min/mg protein, and 1.64 mM/min/mg protein, respectively. Lactose 4%, peptone 1%, pH 6 at 50°C were the optimum culture conditions for acid protease production by Aspergillus flavus with maximum enzymatic activities of 4.59 mM/min/mg protein, 2.06 mM/min/mg protein, 1.24 mM/min/mg protein, and 1.23 mM/min/mg protein, respectively. For Aspergillus niger, the optimum culture conditions for alkaline protease production were corn starch 4%, yeast extract 1%, pH 6 at 40°C with maximum enzymatic activities of 5.99 mM/min/mg protein, 3.85 mM/min/mg protein, 6.18 mM/min/mg protein, and 3.72 mM/min/mg protein, respectively. While lactose 4%, yeast extract 1%, pH 6 at 50°C were the best culture conditions for acid protease production by Aspergillus niger with maximum enzymatic activities of 4.81 mM/min/mg protein, 0.93 mM/min/mg protein, 5.71 mM/min/mg protein, and 3.34 mM/min/mg protein, respectively.展开更多
Objective:To characterize the bacterial pathogens in patients having gram negative septicaemia. Further,to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance and underlying molecular mechanisms in these strains.Methods:A total num...Objective:To characterize the bacterial pathogens in patients having gram negative septicaemia. Further,to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance and underlying molecular mechanisms in these strains.Methods:A total number of 70 cases of gram negative sepsis were included in this prospective,open labeled,observational study.Standard methods for isolation and identification of bacteria were used.Antimicrobial susceptibility and ESBL testing was performed by the standard disc diffusion method.PCR amplification was performed to identify bla<sub>CTX-M</sub>,bla<sub>SHV</sub>and bla<sub>TEM</sub> type ESBLs.Conjugation experiments were performed to show resistant marker transfer. Results:The most prevalent isolates Escherichia coli（E.coli） 58.6%,Klebsiella Spp.32.9%and Pseudomonas 8.6%,were resistant to most of the antimicrobials including cefazolin,ceftriaxone, cefuroxime,ampicillin and co-trimoxazole but sensitive to imipenem and meropenem.ESBL and MBL production was seen 7.3%and 12.2%of E.coli isolates respectively.Three isoaltes were found to have bla<sub>CTX-M-15</sub> and two of them also showed bla<sub>TEM-1</sub> type enxyme.Whereas, none of them showed bla<sub>SHV</sub>.Conjugation experiments using J-53 cells confirmed these resistant markers as plasmid mediated.Conclusions:This work highlights the molecular epidemiology of escalating antimicrobial resistance and likely switch over of bla<sub>CTX-M-15</sub> type extended spectrum beta-lactamases by bla<sub>TEM</sub> type ESBLs in India.Further,the antimicrobial resistance by horizontal gene transfer was predominant among Enterobacteraceae in the community setting.展开更多
Protein phosphorylation,one of the major post-translational modifications,plays a crucial role in cell signaling,DNA replication,gene expression and differentiation;and alters enzyme activity and other biological acti...Protein phosphorylation,one of the major post-translational modifications,plays a crucial role in cell signaling,DNA replication,gene expression and differentiation;and alters enzyme activity and other biological activities;and regulates cell proliferation and enlargement,phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling,plant disease resistance,and grain filling and quality during rice seed development.Research work on protein phosphorylation started in the 1950 s with the discovery of phosphorylase a and phosphorylase b which are phospho and dephospho forms of the same enzyme.Over the last decade,rice proteomics has accomplished tremendous progress in setting up techniques to proteome nearly all tissues,organs and organelles.The progress made in this field is evident in number of research works.However,research on rice protein phosphorylation is still at its infancy and there are still many unanswered questions.In this review,the general description of protein phosphorylation,including history,structure,frequency of occurrence and function,are discussed.This work also elucidates the different methods for identification,qualification and finally,the progress in rice phosphoproteome research and perspectives.展开更多
The main objective of this study was to analyze the effects of sex, ovariectomy (Ovx) and orchidectomy (Orx) on antidepressant and anxiolytic effect of melatonin in forced swimming test, open field test and elevated p...The main objective of this study was to analyze the effects of sex, ovariectomy (Ovx) and orchidectomy (Orx) on antidepressant and anxiolytic effect of melatonin in forced swimming test, open field test and elevated plus maze test. Initially, 4 mg/kg of melatonin was daily administered, at 4:00 pm, to intact male and female rats during 8 weeks. Our results have shown that the effect of chronic injection of Mel is sex dependent in the three behaviors tests. Females rats have responded better than males in behavior test study after administration of melatonin, this difference between the sexes may be related to the action of sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) on behavior in males as well as in females. Secondly, to determine the possible interaction between Melatonin and steroid hormones, Ovx/sham female received Mel at dose of 4mg/kg alone or NaCl (0.9%) alone, and Orx/sham male received Mel at dose of 4 mg/kg alone or NaCl (0.9%) alone daily and during 8 weeks of treatment at 4:00 pm. All animals were tested in the open-field test, elevated plus maze test for anxiety behavior study, and forced swimming test for depression behavior study. Results revealed that Mel exerts an anxiolytic and antidepressant effects in the orchidectomized males and in intact females, confirming that the suppression of androgens by orchidectomy improved anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of melatonin in males. However in females, the suppression of estrogen by ovariectomy masked the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of melatonin. Our results confirmed that the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of melatonin are linked to sex hormones.展开更多
The main objective of this work was to 1) study the influence of endogenous melatonin (Mel) abolishment via pinealectomy and 2) explore exogenous Mel effect on anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior in male and fem...The main objective of this work was to 1) study the influence of endogenous melatonin (Mel) abolishment via pinealectomy and 2) explore exogenous Mel effect on anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior in male and female rats. Rats were shamoperated (Sh) or pinealectomized (Px) and following subgroups were selected 1) Px/NaCl (0.9%) and Sh/NaCl (0.9%) : rats injected subcutaneously, once daily for 8 weeks, with saline solution NaCl (0.9%) as vehicle;2) Px/Mel (4 mg/Kg) and Sh/Mel (4 mg/Kg): Rats similarly injected with 4 mg/Kg of Mel. All animals were housed under a photoperiod of (LD:16/8). After different treatments animals were tested in the open-field test (OFT), elevated plus maze test (EPM) to determine anxiety-like behavior, and forced swimming test (FST) to evaluate depressive-like level. Our results revealed that level of anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior are significantly higher in Px/NaCl (0.9%) when compared to Sh/NaCl (0.9%) group, suggesting that pinelectomy induced an anxiogenic and depressant effects. The Px effects would be due to the absence of endogenous Mel synthesis and release. Additionally, we clearly demonstrated that the level of anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior are higher in Px/Mel (4 mg/Kg) and Sh/Mel when compared respectively to Px/NaCl (4 mg/Kg) and Sh/NaCl groups suggesting an anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of exogenous Mel. Behavioral responses were sex dependent since the difference between females and males, especially, after melatonin administration, were statistically significant. These experiments provide evidence that pinealectomy and Mel regulated emotionally behavior in male and female rats.展开更多
The iron concentrate from Hercules Mine of Coahuila,Mexico,which mainly contained pyrite and pyrrhotite,was treated by the bioleaching process using native strain Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans （A.ferrooxidans） to d...The iron concentrate from Hercules Mine of Coahuila,Mexico,which mainly contained pyrite and pyrrhotite,was treated by the bioleaching process using native strain Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans （A.ferrooxidans） to determine the ability of these bacteria on the leaching of zinc.The native bacteria were isolated from the iron concentrate of the mine.The bioleaching experiments were carried out in shake flasks to analyze the effects of pH values,pulp density,and the ferrous sulfate concentration on the bioleaching process.The results obtained by microbial kinetic analyses for the evaluation of some aspects of zinc leaching show that the native bacteria A.ferrooxidans,which is enriched with a 9K Silverman medium under the optimum conditions of pH 2.0,20 g/L pulp density,and 40 g/L FeSO4,increases the zinc extraction considerably observed by monitoring during15 d,i.e.,the zinc concentration has a decrease of about 95% in the iron concentrate.展开更多
Owing to the high demand, Swertia chirayita populations in the wild are being depleted beyond its regeneration capacity. S. chirayita is one of the most valuable medicinal plants of Nepal in trade. Present Molecular i...Owing to the high demand, Swertia chirayita populations in the wild are being depleted beyond its regeneration capacity. S. chirayita is one of the most valuable medicinal plants of Nepal in trade. Present Molecular investigation was undertaken to understand the level of genetic diversity in five S. chirayita populations of Nepal using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Thirty four accessions of S. chirayita along with six outlier accessions were analyzed using 26 arbitrary primers. Of the total 285 amplified bands scored for S. chirayita, 263 bands (92.28%) were polymorphic. Two major clusters were revealed in the phenogram generated from cluster analysis using NTSYS-PC software (version 2.21i) for the geographic populations under study. Principal Coordinate Analysis further substantiated the results of the phenograms. Swertia chirayita populations from Sankhuwasabha and Terathum were found to be genetically closest (68%, similar) whilst Nagarjun and Terathum were found to be most distant (33%, similar).The high genetic polymorphism reflected in S. chirayita populations indicates the good survival potentiality and adaptability in changing environmental scenario. The results thus produced might be helpful to plant breeders for elite cultivar development. The RAPD-PCR technique is found to be the rapid and effective tool for genetic diversity assessment in S. chirayita populations and generated insights for the formulation of conservation strategy of this vulnerable species together with its phytochemical distinctiveness.展开更多
Black microcolonial fungi and black yeasts are inhabitants of extreme environments like vulcanic, desert and polar regions, where they are exposed to enhanced temperature alterations and desiccation. They have develop...Black microcolonial fungi and black yeasts are inhabitants of extreme environments like vulcanic, desert and polar regions, where they are exposed to enhanced temperature alterations and desiccation. They have developed, therefore, extraordinary biologic characteristics which are mainly based on the expression of proteins, however, these are rarely studied and known. The review article presented here is focused on the obstacles and solutions for the proteomic analyses of this very particular fungal species.展开更多
Endives(Cichorium endivia L.)are popular vegetables,diversified into curly/frisée-and smooth/broad-leafed(escaroles)cultivar types(cultigroups),and consumed as fresh and bagged salads.They are rich in sesquiterpe...Endives(Cichorium endivia L.)are popular vegetables,diversified into curly/frisée-and smooth/broad-leafed(escaroles)cultivar types(cultigroups),and consumed as fresh and bagged salads.They are rich in sesquiterpene lactones(STL)that exert proven function on bitter taste and human health.The assembly of a reference transcriptome of 77,022 unigenes and RNA-sequencing experiments were carried out to characterize the differences between endives and escaroles at the gene structural and expression levels.A set of 3177 SNPs distinguished smooth from curly cultivars,and an SNP-supported phylogenetic tree separated the cultigroups into two distinct clades,consistently with the botanical varieties of origin(crispum and latifolium,respectively).A pool of 699 genes maintained differential expression pattern(core-DEGs)in pairwise comparisons between curly vs smooth cultivars grown in the same environment.Accurate annotation allowed the identification of 26 genes in the sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis pathway,which included several germacrene A synthase,germacrene A oxidase and costunolide synthase members(GAS/GAO/COS module),required for the synthesis of costunolide,a key precursor of lactucopicrin-and lactucin-like sesquiterpene lactones.The core-DEGs contained a GAS gene(contig83192)that was positively correlated with STL levels and recurrently more expressed in curly than smooth endives,suggesting a cultigroup-specific behavior.The significant positive correlation of GAS/GAO/COS transcription and STL abundance(2.4-fold higher in frisée endives)suggested that sesquiterpenoid pathway control occurs at the transcriptional level.Based on correlation analyses,five transcription factors(MYB,MYB-related and WRKY)were inferred to act on contig83192/GAS and specific STL,suggesting the occurrence of two distinct routes in STL biosynthesis.展开更多
The microcolonial black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus is an extremophile organism growing on and in rock in the Antarctic desert. Ecological plasticity and stress tolerance make it a perfect model organism for astrobio...The microcolonial black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus is an extremophile organism growing on and in rock in the Antarctic desert. Ecological plasticity and stress tolerance make it a perfect model organism for astrobiology. 2D-gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry were performed to explore the protein repertoire, which allows the fungus to survive in the harsh environment. Only a limited number of proteins could be identified by using sequence homologies in public databases. Due to the rather low identification rate by sequence homology, this study reveals that a major part of the proteome of C. antarcticus varies significantly from other fungal species.展开更多
This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of the use of predominant yeast strains (Sacharomyces cerevisiae and Issatkenkia orientalis) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus fermentum) of Rwandese traditio...This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of the use of predominant yeast strains (Sacharomyces cerevisiae and Issatkenkia orientalis) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus fermentum) of Rwandese traditional sorghum beer “ikigage” as starter cultures to improve ikigage beer. The results show that L. fermentum has an influence on taste sour of ikigage beer and contributes also to generating ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate and higher alcohols such as 3-methylbutan-1-ol, 2-me- thylbutan-1-ol and 2-methylpropan-1-ol of this beer. I. orientalis contributed to the production of ethyl butyrate, ethyl caprylate, isobutyl butyrate and their corresponding acids, and to the generation of phenyl alcohols in ikigage beer. The association of S. cerevisiae with I. orientalis and L. fermentum produced ikigage beer with taste, aroma and mouth feel more similar to ikigage beers brewed locally by peasants. It is recommended to use S. cerevisiae in association with L. fermentum and I. orientalis as stater cultures to produce ikigage beer having the uniform organoleptic characteristics and a high ethanol content. This method also reduces the risk of contamination of the brew with food sanitary indicator and pathogenic microorganisms and will increase the chance of preservation of ikigage beer.展开更多
In nutrition for productive species, additives play an important role in boosting physiological processes. Only in recent years studies include models of the effects on fish cells of these additives. We observed effec...In nutrition for productive species, additives play an important role in boosting physiological processes. Only in recent years studies include models of the effects on fish cells of these additives. We observed effects of silymarin, a compound highly utilized in aquaculture. The cell line SHK-1 was used derived from the upper liver of the Atlantic salmon as a biological model. Samples were exposed to silymarin in incrementing time and concentrations, to evaluate by MTT and number of cells, the effects on cell viability. Also, oxidative stress models were used to find the protector effects of silymarin against these agents. Our data indicate that a dose of 100 ppm of silymarin is sufficient to stimulate cellular proliferation. Cultures were exposed to high glucose (15 mM) or H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (0.1 mM) in presence of or absence of silymarin at 100 ppm. We observed that the toxic effects of both compounds were blocked by the presence of silymarin. Our results indicate that it is important to evaluate additive effects at a cellular level. Also, silymarin does have proliferative effects, and protect against cellular injury in our models. Our study helps to generate more rational applications of additives in the industry and presents new challenges in order to better manipulate the model in the laboratory, allowing us to obtain new evidence regarding the microalgae’s biology through in vitro studies.展开更多
Heterogeneous photocatalytic reaction has been generally applied for degradation of toxic contaminants.Degradations of a compound using the same kind of catalyst that was synthesized differently are commonly found in ...Heterogeneous photocatalytic reaction has been generally applied for degradation of toxic contaminants.Degradations of a compound using the same kind of catalyst that was synthesized differently are commonly found in literature.However,the reported degradation intermediates are normally inconsistent.This issue is especially important for the degradation of toxic compounds because intermediates may be more toxic than their parent compounds and understanding the reason is necessary if appropriate catalysts are to be designed.This work systematically compares the photocatalytic degradation of diuron,a toxic recalcitrant herbicide,on two forms of zinc oxide(ZnO),i.e.,conventional particles with zinc-and oxygen-terminated polar surfaces as the dominating planes,and nanorods with mixed-terminated nonpolar surfaces.Experimental and theoretical results indicate that both the rate of reaction and the degradation pathway depend on the adsorption configuration of diuron onto the surface.Diuron molecules adsorb in different alignments on the two surfaces,contributing to the formation of different degradation intermediates.Both the aliphatic and aromatic sides of diuron adsorb on the polar surfaces simultaneously,leading to an attack by hydroxyl radicals from both ends.On the other hand,on the mixed-terminated surface,only the aliphatic part adsorbs and is degraded.The exposed surface is therefore the key factor controlling the degradation pathway.For diuron degradation on ZnO,a catalyst confined tomixed-terminated surfaces,i.e.,ZnO nanorods,is more desirable,as it avoids the formation of intermediates with potent phytotoxicity and cytogenotoxicity.展开更多
The emerging trend of multidrug resistance is becoming a major threat to community acquired and nosocomial infections,worldwide[1].The carbapenems are used as last-source drugs because of increasing resistance against...The emerging trend of multidrug resistance is becoming a major threat to community acquired and nosocomial infections,worldwide[1].The carbapenems are used as last-source drugs because of increasing resistance against beta-lactam groups of antibiotics due to its excessive use to treat wide range of infections[2].The展开更多
Objective:To determine the free radical scavenging potentials pytochemical constituents of ethanol leaves extracts of Allamanda cathartica(A.cathartica)and Bixa orellann(B.orellana)and thus their effects in antimalari...Objective:To determine the free radical scavenging potentials pytochemical constituents of ethanol leaves extracts of Allamanda cathartica(A.cathartica)and Bixa orellann(B.orellana)and thus their effects in antimalarial activities.Methods:Both ethanol extracted plant samples were administered at 50 mg/mL,100 mg/mL and 200 mg/mL to Albino rats and then administered with CCl_4 at 1 mL/kg body weight,in liquid paraffin(1:1,v/v)for 2 days(negative control)and compared with 5%Tween 80(placebo)and vitamin E(positive control)pretreatments.Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances(TBARS),glutathione(GSH)and calalase(CAT)activities in blood and liver tissues were assessed.Results:In CCl,treated rats,TBARS levels significantly increased,while decreased GSH and CAT levels were recorded for both plant extracts.Generally,higher TBARS and GSH values were recorded for blood than for liver homogenates;with reverse trend observed for CAT level.Increased concentrations of A.cathartica extract recorded significant antioxidant levels similar to tocopherol(vitamin E).Reducing sugars,saponins,flavonoids were recorded for both species;alkaloids in A.cathartica and terpenoids in B.orellana.Conclusions:A.cathartica,possess phytochemicals that recorded significant antioxidative defense activities for blood and liver tissues with increasing concentration.However B.orellana did not record similar results.展开更多
The discovery that RNA can act as an enzyme led Thomas Cech to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and led immediately to the next wave of attempts to find an effective RNA-based therapy.The tantalizing idea that RNA enz...The discovery that RNA can act as an enzyme led Thomas Cech to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and led immediately to the next wave of attempts to find an effective RNA-based therapy.The tantalizing idea that RNA enzymes called trans-cleaving ribozymes enables them to act as potential antiviral and powerful tool for functional genomic studies.The efficacy of ribozyme function in a complex intracellular environment is dependent on the intracellular fate of the RNA that is being targeted.Recently,ribozymes have been used successfully to inhibit gene expression in a variety of biological systems in vitro and in vivo.Ribozyme has also been used successfully to combat many cases of viral infection,as clinical trial.Despite it needs to be investigated and explored as far as its structural and functional aspects are concern.In view of the significance of ribozyme in modern medicine,we reviewed the recent literature on general approach to control viral infection.展开更多
基金Supported by the King Salman Center for Disability Research,No.KSRG-2023-407.
文摘Diabetic foot(DF)is a major public health concern.As evident from numerous previous studies,supervision of DF ulcer(DFU)is crucial,and a specific quality check-up is needed.Patients should be educated about glycaemic management,DFUs,foot lesions,proper care for injuries,diet,and surgery.Certain reasonably priced treatments,such as hyperbaric oxygen and vacuum-assisted closure therapy,are also available for DFUs,along with modern wound care products and techniques.Nonetheless,DF care(cleaning,applying antimicrobial cream when wounded,and foot reflexology),blood glucose monitoring to control diabetes,and monthly or quarterly examinations in individuals with diabetes are effective in managing DFUs.Between 50%and 80%of DF infections are preventable.Regardless of the intensity of the lesion,it needs to be treated carefully and checked daily during infection.Tissue regeneration can be aided by cleaning,dressing,and application of topical medicines.The choice of shoes is also important because it affects blood circulation and nerve impulses.In general,regular check-ups,monitoring of the patient’s condition,measuring blood glucose levels,and providing frequent guidance regarding DFU care are crucial.Finally,this important clinical problem requires involvement of multiple professionals to properly manage it.
基金supported by the internal funds of Biotechnology Department,AMU,Aligarh
文摘This study was to investigate the current trends of multiple drug resistance in bacteria against antibiotics for the proper empirical treatmen.Clinical isolates were collected from community-acquired infection of urinary tract patients in Aligarh India from March 1999 to August 1999.Antibiotic susceptibility test was performed,using the disc diffusion method followed by plasmid isolation by the method of Kado and Liu.Transfer experiments were performed by the method of Lederberg and Cohen.Clinical study revealed that this infection was more common in young women.Various strains of E.coli isolated during the course of study were found to show multiple antibiotic resistance which was further characterized as plasmid-borne drug resistance.This study shows that E.coli may be one of the important causative agents of urinary tract infection(UTI) in young women.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos.51633001,51721002 and 51873040)National Key R&D Program of China (No.2016YFC1100300)。
文摘Negative thermal expansion(NTE) behavior has roused wide interest for the control of thermomechanical properties of functional materials.Although NTE behaviors have been found in kinds of compounds,it remains challenging for polymers to achieve intrinsic NTE property.In this work,we systematically studied the conformational change of dibenzocyclooctadiene(DBCOD) derivatives between chair(C) and twist-boat(TB) forms based on density-functional theo ry(DFT) calculations,and found clear evidence of the relationship between the structure of DBCOD units and the thermal contraction behavior of the related polymers.In order to obtain the polymer with NTE property,two conditions should be met for the thermal contracting DBCOD related units as follows:(i) the TB conformation can turn into C conformation as the temperature increases,and(ii) the volume of C conformation is smaller than that of TB conformation.This rule should offer a guidance to exploration of the new intrinsic NTE polymers in the future.
基金Supported by Chulabhorn Royal Academy(Fundamental Fund:Fiscal year 2022 by National Science Research and Innovation Fund),No.FRB650039/0240 Project Code 165422.
文摘BACKGROUND Colorectal polyps that develop via the conventional adenoma-carcinoma sequence[e.g.,tubular adenoma(TA)]often progress to malignancy and are closely associated with changes in the composition of the gut microbiome.There is limited research concerning the microbial functions and gut microbiomes associated with colorectal polyps that arise through the serrated polyp pathway,such as hyperplastic polyps(HP).Exploration of microbiome alterations asso-ciated with HP and TA would improve the understanding of mechanisms by which specific microbes and their metabolic pathways contribute to colorectal carcinogenesis.AIM To investigate gut microbiome signatures,microbial associations,and microbial functions in HP and TA patients.METHODS Full-length 16S rRNA sequencing was used to characterize the gut microbiome in stool samples from control participants without polyps[control group(CT),n=40],patients with HP(n=52),and patients with TA(n=60).Significant differences in gut microbiome composition and functional mechanisms were identified between the CT group and patients with HP or TA.Analytical techniques in this study included differential abundance analysis,co-occurrence network analysis,and differential pathway analysis.RESULTS Colorectal cancer(CRC)-associated bacteria,including Streptococcus gallolyticus(S.gallolyticus),Bacteroides fragilis,and Clostridium symbiosum,were identified as characteristic microbial species in TA patients.Mediterraneibacter gnavus,associated with dysbiosis and gastrointestinal diseases,was significantly differentially abundant in the HP and TA groups.Functional pathway analysis revealed that HP patients exhibited enrichment in the sulfur oxidation pathway exclusively,whereas TA patients showed dominance in pathways related to secondary metabolite biosynthesis(e.g.,mevalonate);S.gallolyticus was a major contributor.Co-occurrence network and dynamic network analyses revealed co-occurrence of dysbiosis-associated bacteria in HP patients,whereas TA patients exhibited co-occurrence of CRC-associated bacteria.Furthermore,the co-occurrence of SCFA-producing bacteria was lower in TA patients than HP patients.CONCLUSION This study revealed distinct gut microbiome signatures associated with pathways of colorectal polyp development,providing insights concerning the roles of microbial species,functional pathways,and microbial interactions in colorectal carcinogenesis.
文摘Proteases are important industrial enzymes that account for about 60% of the total enzyme market globally due to their large application in food, feed, textile and pharmaceutical industries. The effect of salt stress on protease production was evaluated on Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. The enzyme production was enhanced by stepwise optimization of the culture parameters, notably, carbon source, nitrogen source, pH, and temperature of the submerged fermentation process while using a minimal salt media and casein as substrate for the protease activity. The fungi species were found to be good producers of both acid and alkaline proteases under 4% salt stress condition. The optimum culture conditions for alkaline protease production by Aspergillus flavus were sucrose 4%, peptone 1%, pH 8 at 40°C with maximum enzymatic activities of 8.85 mM/min/mg protein, 5.22 mM/min/mg protein, 3.75 mM/min/mg protein, and 1.64 mM/min/mg protein, respectively. Lactose 4%, peptone 1%, pH 6 at 50°C were the optimum culture conditions for acid protease production by Aspergillus flavus with maximum enzymatic activities of 4.59 mM/min/mg protein, 2.06 mM/min/mg protein, 1.24 mM/min/mg protein, and 1.23 mM/min/mg protein, respectively. For Aspergillus niger, the optimum culture conditions for alkaline protease production were corn starch 4%, yeast extract 1%, pH 6 at 40°C with maximum enzymatic activities of 5.99 mM/min/mg protein, 3.85 mM/min/mg protein, 6.18 mM/min/mg protein, and 3.72 mM/min/mg protein, respectively. While lactose 4%, yeast extract 1%, pH 6 at 50°C were the best culture conditions for acid protease production by Aspergillus niger with maximum enzymatic activities of 4.81 mM/min/mg protein, 0.93 mM/min/mg protein, 5.71 mM/min/mg protein, and 3.34 mM/min/mg protein, respectively.
基金supported by internal funds of Biotechnology Unit.AMU and DBT grant,BT/PR11453/BID/07/296/2009 to AUK
文摘Objective:To characterize the bacterial pathogens in patients having gram negative septicaemia. Further,to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance and underlying molecular mechanisms in these strains.Methods:A total number of 70 cases of gram negative sepsis were included in this prospective,open labeled,observational study.Standard methods for isolation and identification of bacteria were used.Antimicrobial susceptibility and ESBL testing was performed by the standard disc diffusion method.PCR amplification was performed to identify bla<sub>CTX-M</sub>,bla<sub>SHV</sub>and bla<sub>TEM</sub> type ESBLs.Conjugation experiments were performed to show resistant marker transfer. Results:The most prevalent isolates Escherichia coli（E.coli） 58.6%,Klebsiella Spp.32.9%and Pseudomonas 8.6%,were resistant to most of the antimicrobials including cefazolin,ceftriaxone, cefuroxime,ampicillin and co-trimoxazole but sensitive to imipenem and meropenem.ESBL and MBL production was seen 7.3%and 12.2%of E.coli isolates respectively.Three isoaltes were found to have bla<sub>CTX-M-15</sub> and two of them also showed bla<sub>TEM-1</sub> type enxyme.Whereas, none of them showed bla<sub>SHV</sub>.Conjugation experiments using J-53 cells confirmed these resistant markers as plasmid mediated.Conclusions:This work highlights the molecular epidemiology of escalating antimicrobial resistance and likely switch over of bla<sub>CTX-M-15</sub> type extended spectrum beta-lactamases by bla<sub>TEM</sub> type ESBLs in India.Further,the antimicrobial resistance by horizontal gene transfer was predominant among Enterobacteraceae in the community setting.
文摘Protein phosphorylation,one of the major post-translational modifications,plays a crucial role in cell signaling,DNA replication,gene expression and differentiation;and alters enzyme activity and other biological activities;and regulates cell proliferation and enlargement,phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling,plant disease resistance,and grain filling and quality during rice seed development.Research work on protein phosphorylation started in the 1950 s with the discovery of phosphorylase a and phosphorylase b which are phospho and dephospho forms of the same enzyme.Over the last decade,rice proteomics has accomplished tremendous progress in setting up techniques to proteome nearly all tissues,organs and organelles.The progress made in this field is evident in number of research works.However,research on rice protein phosphorylation is still at its infancy and there are still many unanswered questions.In this review,the general description of protein phosphorylation,including history,structure,frequency of occurrence and function,are discussed.This work also elucidates the different methods for identification,qualification and finally,the progress in rice phosphoproteome research and perspectives.
文摘The main objective of this study was to analyze the effects of sex, ovariectomy (Ovx) and orchidectomy (Orx) on antidepressant and anxiolytic effect of melatonin in forced swimming test, open field test and elevated plus maze test. Initially, 4 mg/kg of melatonin was daily administered, at 4:00 pm, to intact male and female rats during 8 weeks. Our results have shown that the effect of chronic injection of Mel is sex dependent in the three behaviors tests. Females rats have responded better than males in behavior test study after administration of melatonin, this difference between the sexes may be related to the action of sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) on behavior in males as well as in females. Secondly, to determine the possible interaction between Melatonin and steroid hormones, Ovx/sham female received Mel at dose of 4mg/kg alone or NaCl (0.9%) alone, and Orx/sham male received Mel at dose of 4 mg/kg alone or NaCl (0.9%) alone daily and during 8 weeks of treatment at 4:00 pm. All animals were tested in the open-field test, elevated plus maze test for anxiety behavior study, and forced swimming test for depression behavior study. Results revealed that Mel exerts an anxiolytic and antidepressant effects in the orchidectomized males and in intact females, confirming that the suppression of androgens by orchidectomy improved anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of melatonin in males. However in females, the suppression of estrogen by ovariectomy masked the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of melatonin. Our results confirmed that the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of melatonin are linked to sex hormones.
文摘The main objective of this work was to 1) study the influence of endogenous melatonin (Mel) abolishment via pinealectomy and 2) explore exogenous Mel effect on anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior in male and female rats. Rats were shamoperated (Sh) or pinealectomized (Px) and following subgroups were selected 1) Px/NaCl (0.9%) and Sh/NaCl (0.9%) : rats injected subcutaneously, once daily for 8 weeks, with saline solution NaCl (0.9%) as vehicle;2) Px/Mel (4 mg/Kg) and Sh/Mel (4 mg/Kg): Rats similarly injected with 4 mg/Kg of Mel. All animals were housed under a photoperiod of (LD:16/8). After different treatments animals were tested in the open-field test (OFT), elevated plus maze test (EPM) to determine anxiety-like behavior, and forced swimming test (FST) to evaluate depressive-like level. Our results revealed that level of anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior are significantly higher in Px/NaCl (0.9%) when compared to Sh/NaCl (0.9%) group, suggesting that pinelectomy induced an anxiogenic and depressant effects. The Px effects would be due to the absence of endogenous Mel synthesis and release. Additionally, we clearly demonstrated that the level of anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior are higher in Px/Mel (4 mg/Kg) and Sh/Mel when compared respectively to Px/NaCl (4 mg/Kg) and Sh/NaCl groups suggesting an anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of exogenous Mel. Behavioral responses were sex dependent since the difference between females and males, especially, after melatonin administration, were statistically significant. These experiments provide evidence that pinealectomy and Mel regulated emotionally behavior in male and female rats.
文摘The iron concentrate from Hercules Mine of Coahuila,Mexico,which mainly contained pyrite and pyrrhotite,was treated by the bioleaching process using native strain Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans （A.ferrooxidans） to determine the ability of these bacteria on the leaching of zinc.The native bacteria were isolated from the iron concentrate of the mine.The bioleaching experiments were carried out in shake flasks to analyze the effects of pH values,pulp density,and the ferrous sulfate concentration on the bioleaching process.The results obtained by microbial kinetic analyses for the evaluation of some aspects of zinc leaching show that the native bacteria A.ferrooxidans,which is enriched with a 9K Silverman medium under the optimum conditions of pH 2.0,20 g/L pulp density,and 40 g/L FeSO4,increases the zinc extraction considerably observed by monitoring during15 d,i.e.,the zinc concentration has a decrease of about 95% in the iron concentrate.
文摘Owing to the high demand, Swertia chirayita populations in the wild are being depleted beyond its regeneration capacity. S. chirayita is one of the most valuable medicinal plants of Nepal in trade. Present Molecular investigation was undertaken to understand the level of genetic diversity in five S. chirayita populations of Nepal using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Thirty four accessions of S. chirayita along with six outlier accessions were analyzed using 26 arbitrary primers. Of the total 285 amplified bands scored for S. chirayita, 263 bands (92.28%) were polymorphic. Two major clusters were revealed in the phenogram generated from cluster analysis using NTSYS-PC software (version 2.21i) for the geographic populations under study. Principal Coordinate Analysis further substantiated the results of the phenograms. Swertia chirayita populations from Sankhuwasabha and Terathum were found to be genetically closest (68%, similar) whilst Nagarjun and Terathum were found to be most distant (33%, similar).The high genetic polymorphism reflected in S. chirayita populations indicates the good survival potentiality and adaptability in changing environmental scenario. The results thus produced might be helpful to plant breeders for elite cultivar development. The RAPD-PCR technique is found to be the rapid and effective tool for genetic diversity assessment in S. chirayita populations and generated insights for the formulation of conservation strategy of this vulnerable species together with its phytochemical distinctiveness.
文摘Black microcolonial fungi and black yeasts are inhabitants of extreme environments like vulcanic, desert and polar regions, where they are exposed to enhanced temperature alterations and desiccation. They have developed, therefore, extraordinary biologic characteristics which are mainly based on the expression of proteins, however, these are rarely studied and known. The review article presented here is focused on the obstacles and solutions for the proteomic analyses of this very particular fungal species.
基金supported this work for the project CISIA-Made in Italy—Law n.191/2009.
文摘Endives(Cichorium endivia L.)are popular vegetables,diversified into curly/frisée-and smooth/broad-leafed(escaroles)cultivar types(cultigroups),and consumed as fresh and bagged salads.They are rich in sesquiterpene lactones(STL)that exert proven function on bitter taste and human health.The assembly of a reference transcriptome of 77,022 unigenes and RNA-sequencing experiments were carried out to characterize the differences between endives and escaroles at the gene structural and expression levels.A set of 3177 SNPs distinguished smooth from curly cultivars,and an SNP-supported phylogenetic tree separated the cultigroups into two distinct clades,consistently with the botanical varieties of origin(crispum and latifolium,respectively).A pool of 699 genes maintained differential expression pattern(core-DEGs)in pairwise comparisons between curly vs smooth cultivars grown in the same environment.Accurate annotation allowed the identification of 26 genes in the sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis pathway,which included several germacrene A synthase,germacrene A oxidase and costunolide synthase members(GAS/GAO/COS module),required for the synthesis of costunolide,a key precursor of lactucopicrin-and lactucin-like sesquiterpene lactones.The core-DEGs contained a GAS gene(contig83192)that was positively correlated with STL levels and recurrently more expressed in curly than smooth endives,suggesting a cultigroup-specific behavior.The significant positive correlation of GAS/GAO/COS transcription and STL abundance(2.4-fold higher in frisée endives)suggested that sesquiterpenoid pathway control occurs at the transcriptional level.Based on correlation analyses,five transcription factors(MYB,MYB-related and WRKY)were inferred to act on contig83192/GAS and specific STL,suggesting the occurrence of two distinct routes in STL biosynthesis.
文摘The microcolonial black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus is an extremophile organism growing on and in rock in the Antarctic desert. Ecological plasticity and stress tolerance make it a perfect model organism for astrobiology. 2D-gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry were performed to explore the protein repertoire, which allows the fungus to survive in the harsh environment. Only a limited number of proteins could be identified by using sequence homologies in public databases. Due to the rather low identification rate by sequence homology, this study reveals that a major part of the proteome of C. antarcticus varies significantly from other fungal species.
基金The authors thank the Walloon Center of Industrial Biology(CWBI)and Research Commission of National University of Rwanda(NUR)for their financial support.
文摘This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of the use of predominant yeast strains (Sacharomyces cerevisiae and Issatkenkia orientalis) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus fermentum) of Rwandese traditional sorghum beer “ikigage” as starter cultures to improve ikigage beer. The results show that L. fermentum has an influence on taste sour of ikigage beer and contributes also to generating ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate and higher alcohols such as 3-methylbutan-1-ol, 2-me- thylbutan-1-ol and 2-methylpropan-1-ol of this beer. I. orientalis contributed to the production of ethyl butyrate, ethyl caprylate, isobutyl butyrate and their corresponding acids, and to the generation of phenyl alcohols in ikigage beer. The association of S. cerevisiae with I. orientalis and L. fermentum produced ikigage beer with taste, aroma and mouth feel more similar to ikigage beers brewed locally by peasants. It is recommended to use S. cerevisiae in association with L. fermentum and I. orientalis as stater cultures to produce ikigage beer having the uniform organoleptic characteristics and a high ethanol content. This method also reduces the risk of contamination of the brew with food sanitary indicator and pathogenic microorganisms and will increase the chance of preservation of ikigage beer.
文摘In nutrition for productive species, additives play an important role in boosting physiological processes. Only in recent years studies include models of the effects on fish cells of these additives. We observed effects of silymarin, a compound highly utilized in aquaculture. The cell line SHK-1 was used derived from the upper liver of the Atlantic salmon as a biological model. Samples were exposed to silymarin in incrementing time and concentrations, to evaluate by MTT and number of cells, the effects on cell viability. Also, oxidative stress models were used to find the protector effects of silymarin against these agents. Our data indicate that a dose of 100 ppm of silymarin is sufficient to stimulate cellular proliferation. Cultures were exposed to high glucose (15 mM) or H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (0.1 mM) in presence of or absence of silymarin at 100 ppm. We observed that the toxic effects of both compounds were blocked by the presence of silymarin. Our results indicate that it is important to evaluate additive effects at a cellular level. Also, silymarin does have proliferative effects, and protect against cellular injury in our models. Our study helps to generate more rational applications of additives in the industry and presents new challenges in order to better manipulate the model in the laboratory, allowing us to obtain new evidence regarding the microalgae’s biology through in vitro studies.
基金funded by the Thailand Research Fund (No. DBG5580006)
文摘Heterogeneous photocatalytic reaction has been generally applied for degradation of toxic contaminants.Degradations of a compound using the same kind of catalyst that was synthesized differently are commonly found in literature.However,the reported degradation intermediates are normally inconsistent.This issue is especially important for the degradation of toxic compounds because intermediates may be more toxic than their parent compounds and understanding the reason is necessary if appropriate catalysts are to be designed.This work systematically compares the photocatalytic degradation of diuron,a toxic recalcitrant herbicide,on two forms of zinc oxide(ZnO),i.e.,conventional particles with zinc-and oxygen-terminated polar surfaces as the dominating planes,and nanorods with mixed-terminated nonpolar surfaces.Experimental and theoretical results indicate that both the rate of reaction and the degradation pathway depend on the adsorption configuration of diuron onto the surface.Diuron molecules adsorb in different alignments on the two surfaces,contributing to the formation of different degradation intermediates.Both the aliphatic and aromatic sides of diuron adsorb on the polar surfaces simultaneously,leading to an attack by hydroxyl radicals from both ends.On the other hand,on the mixed-terminated surface,only the aliphatic part adsorbs and is degraded.The exposed surface is therefore the key factor controlling the degradation pathway.For diuron degradation on ZnO,a catalyst confined tomixed-terminated surfaces,i.e.,ZnO nanorods,is more desirable,as it avoids the formation of intermediates with potent phytotoxicity and cytogenotoxicity.
基金supported by internal funds of Bioteclmology and DBT grant.BT/PR11453/BID/07/296/2009 to AUK
文摘The emerging trend of multidrug resistance is becoming a major threat to community acquired and nosocomial infections,worldwide[1].The carbapenems are used as last-source drugs because of increasing resistance against beta-lactam groups of antibiotics due to its excessive use to treat wide range of infections[2].The
基金Supported by Centre for Research & Development (CUCERD),Covenant University(Grant No.CUCERD-0012-34/09)
文摘Objective:To determine the free radical scavenging potentials pytochemical constituents of ethanol leaves extracts of Allamanda cathartica(A.cathartica)and Bixa orellann(B.orellana)and thus their effects in antimalarial activities.Methods:Both ethanol extracted plant samples were administered at 50 mg/mL,100 mg/mL and 200 mg/mL to Albino rats and then administered with CCl_4 at 1 mL/kg body weight,in liquid paraffin(1:1,v/v)for 2 days(negative control)and compared with 5%Tween 80(placebo)and vitamin E(positive control)pretreatments.Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances(TBARS),glutathione(GSH)and calalase(CAT)activities in blood and liver tissues were assessed.Results:In CCl,treated rats,TBARS levels significantly increased,while decreased GSH and CAT levels were recorded for both plant extracts.Generally,higher TBARS and GSH values were recorded for blood than for liver homogenates;with reverse trend observed for CAT level.Increased concentrations of A.cathartica extract recorded significant antioxidant levels similar to tocopherol(vitamin E).Reducing sugars,saponins,flavonoids were recorded for both species;alkaloids in A.cathartica and terpenoids in B.orellana.Conclusions:A.cathartica,possess phytochemicals that recorded significant antioxidative defense activities for blood and liver tissues with increasing concentration.However B.orellana did not record similar results.
文摘The discovery that RNA can act as an enzyme led Thomas Cech to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and led immediately to the next wave of attempts to find an effective RNA-based therapy.The tantalizing idea that RNA enzymes called trans-cleaving ribozymes enables them to act as potential antiviral and powerful tool for functional genomic studies.The efficacy of ribozyme function in a complex intracellular environment is dependent on the intracellular fate of the RNA that is being targeted.Recently,ribozymes have been used successfully to inhibit gene expression in a variety of biological systems in vitro and in vivo.Ribozyme has also been used successfully to combat many cases of viral infection,as clinical trial.Despite it needs to be investigated and explored as far as its structural and functional aspects are concern.In view of the significance of ribozyme in modern medicine,we reviewed the recent literature on general approach to control viral infection.
