The development of actuators based on ionic polymers as soft robotics,artificial muscles,and sensors is currently considered one of the most urgent topics.They are lightweight materials,in addition to their high effic...The development of actuators based on ionic polymers as soft robotics,artificial muscles,and sensors is currently considered one of the most urgent topics.They are lightweight materials,in addition to their high efficiency,and they can be controlled by a low power source.Nevertheless,the most popular ionic polymers are derived from fossil-based resources.Hence,it is now deemed crucial to produce these actuators using sustainable materials.In this review,the use of ionic polymeric materials as actuators is reviewed through the emphasis on their role in the domain of renewablematerials.The reviewencompasses recent advancements inmaterial formulation and performance enhancement,alongside a comparative analysis with conventional actuator systems.It was found that renewable polymeric actuators based on ionic gels and conductive polymers are easier to prepare compared to ionic polymermetal composites.In addition,the proportion of actuator manufacturing utilizing renewable materials rose to 90%,particularly for ion gel actuators,which was related to the possibility of using renewable polymers as ionic or conductive substances.Moreover,the possible improvements in biopolymeric actuators will experience an annual rise of at least 10%over the next decade,correlating with the growth of their market,which aligns with the worldwide goal of reducing global warming.Additionally,compared to fossil-derived polymers,the decomposition rate of renewable materials reaches 100%,while biodegradable fossil-based substances can exceed 60%within several weeks.Ultimately,this review aims to elucidate the potential of ionic polymeric materials as a viable and sustainable solution for future actuator technologies.展开更多
Radio frequency identification (RFID) provides great potential for different Internet of Things (IOT) applications. In the future, material choices in these IOT devices will have a huge effect on the environment and t...Radio frequency identification (RFID) provides great potential for different Internet of Things (IOT) applications. In the future, material choices in these IOT devices will have a huge effect on the environment and thus use of renewable materials is a growing trend. In this paper, passive ultra high frequency (UHF) RFID tags were inkjet-printed directly on wood, paper, and cardboard substrates, and their performance was evaluated by measuring two key properties: threshold power and theoretical read range. According to our measurements, the tags on wood showed read ranges of 7 - 8 meters, the tags on cardboard exhibited read ranges of 4 - 7 meters, and the tags printed on paper showed read ranges of 2 - 7 meters through the global UHF RFID band. According to these results, the performance of these inkjet-printed UHF RFID tags is sufficient for many IOT devices and potential applications e.g. in construction and packaging industry.展开更多
With the rapid development of industry,the environmental problems caused by heavy metal arsenic and antimony are becoming increasingly serious.Therefore,it is urgent to solve the problem of arsenic and antimony pollut...With the rapid development of industry,the environmental problems caused by heavy metal arsenic and antimony are becoming increasingly serious.Therefore,it is urgent to solve the problem of arsenic and antimony pollution in the water environment.Renewable carbon-based materials,as a kind of adsorbent widely used in wastewater treatment,have been the focus of scholars’research for many years.In this review,the preparation methods,characteristics,and applications of renewable carbon-based materials(biochar,activated carbon,carbon nanotubes,and graphene)for the removal of arsenic and antimony are described in detail.Based on adsorption kinetics,isothermal adsorption,temperature,pH,and coexisting ions,we discuss the process of adsorption of arsenic and antimony by renewable carbon-based materials,explore the mechanism of adsorption of anions in water by renewable carbon-basedmaterials,and comparatively analyze the differences in adsorption performance of arsenic and antimony by different renewable carbon-based materials.Compared with biochar,activated carbon,carbon nanotube,and graphene renewable materials loaded with iron-manganese oxides have better removal effects on arsenic and antimony wastewater.Extensive research data shows that biochar,as a renewable material,is recommended,followed by activated carbon.Both are recommended because of their excellent adsorption properties and low production costs.Finally,the prospects and challenges of the application of renewable carbon-based materials in wastewater treatment are discussed,and the directions and development trends of future research are pointed out,which provide references and insights for further promoting the application of renewable carbon-based materials in wastewater treatment.展开更多
The article presents the results of a study on the possibility of synthesizing biodegradable poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)[P(3HB-co-4HB)]from renewable waste fish oil(WFO)by the Cupriavidus necator B-10...The article presents the results of a study on the possibility of synthesizing biodegradable poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)[P(3HB-co-4HB)]from renewable waste fish oil(WFO)by the Cupriavidus necator B-10646 bacterium.For the first time,waste oil generated during the processing of Sprattus balticus in the pro-duction of sprats was used as the main carbon substrate for the synthesis of P(3HB-co-4HB),andε-caprolactone was used as a precursor instead of the more expensiveγ-butyrolactone.Samples of P(3HB-co-4HB)with a 4HB monomer content from 7.4 to 11.6 mol.%were synthesized,and values of the bacterial biomass yield and the total yield of the copolymer were comparable with the control(where butyric acid was used as carbon source).The following properties of the samples were studied:molecular weight,temperature characteristics,thermal behavior,isothermal crystallization of melts,and the formation of spherulites.The renewable fatty substrate of complex composition was used to synthesize samples of technologically advanced low-crystallinity P(3HB-co-4HB)with significant proportions of 4HB,without impairing the physicochemical properties of the polymer.The biotech-nological process involving the use of renewable WFO andε-caprolactone can be employed to reduce the costs of producing a promising“green”bioplastic and make it more affordable.展开更多
Fossil fuels have sustained the prosperity of human civilization for centuries since the invention of internal combustion engine during the first industrial revolution. However, several drawbacks also come along with ...Fossil fuels have sustained the prosperity of human civilization for centuries since the invention of internal combustion engine during the first industrial revolution. However, several drawbacks also come along with the wide-spread adoption of fossil fuels, namely, energy shortage, environmental pollution, global warm- ing, and so on. It is therefore highly desirable to conduct renewable and clean energy innovation, in an effort to power the world with alternative and affordable energy. To realize this goal,展开更多
This review is composed of three main parts each of which is written by well-known top specialists that have been,in a way or other,also the main participants of the majority of the developments reported.Thus,after a ...This review is composed of three main parts each of which is written by well-known top specialists that have been,in a way or other,also the main participants of the majority of the developments reported.Thus,after a general part covering the grand lines and more in-depth views of more recent tannin,lignin,carbohydrate and soy bioadhesives,somemix of the other bio raw materials with soy protein and soy flour and some other differently sourced bioadhesives for wood,this review presents a more in-depth part on starch-based wood adhesives and a more indepth part covering plant protein-based adhesives.It must be kept in mind that the review is focused on completely or almost completely biosourced adhesives,the fashionable adhesives derived from mixes of biosourced materials with synthetic resins having been intentionally excluded.This choice was made as the latter constitute only an intermediate interval,possibly temporary if even for a somewhat long times,towards a final full bioeconomy of scale in this field.This review also focuses on more recent results,mainly obtained in the last 10–20 years,thus on adhesive formulations really innovative and sometimes even non-traditional.In all these fields there is still a lot of possibility of innovation for relevant formulation as this field is still in rapid growth.展开更多
The increasing severity of air pollution necessitates more effective and sustained air filtration technology.Concurrently,the desire for more environmentally friendly,sustainable materials with better filtering perfor...The increasing severity of air pollution necessitates more effective and sustained air filtration technology.Concurrently,the desire for more environmentally friendly,sustainable materials with better filtering performance and less environmental impact drives the move away from conventional synthetic membranes.This review presents lignocellulosic biocomposite(LigBioComp)membranes as an alternative to traditional synthetic membranes.It focuses on their materials,fabrication,and functionalization techniques while exploring challenges and proposing methods for resourceful utilization.Renowned for their abundance and renewable nature,lignocellulosic materials consist of cellulose,hemicellulose,and lignin.Various applications can benefit from their antibacterial properties,large surface area,and remarkable mechanical strength.LigBioComp membranes are fabricated through casting,electrospinning,and freeze-drying,with advancements in fabrication techniques enhancing their performance and applicability.It is suggested to use solvent-free or low-solvent techniques such as Layer-by-Layer assembly to minimize environmental impact.Freeze-drying and electrospinning with green solvents can be used for achieving specific membrane properties,though energy consumption should be considered.Apply dry-wet spinning and solvent casting processes selectively.Functional groups,including carboxyl,hydroxyl,or amino groups,can significantly improve the membrane’s capacity to capture particulate matter.Chemical etching or the precise deposition of nanoparticles can further optimize pore size and distribution.The choice of chemicals and methods is critical in functionalization,with silane coupling agents,polyethyleneimine,and polydopamine.Future research should prioritize refining fabrication methods,advancing functionalization strategies,and conducting performance and recyclability assessments on hybrid and composite materials.This will enhance integrated systems and contribute to the development of smart filters.展开更多
Bamboo parenchymal cells(PCs)represent an underutilized resource with significant potential as a sustainable and versatile bio-based material.Despite the extensive research on bamboo fibers,PCs,comprising a considerab...Bamboo parenchymal cells(PCs)represent an underutilized resource with significant potential as a sustainable and versatile bio-based material.Despite the extensive research on bamboo fibers,PCs,comprising a considerable portion of bamboo,have been largely overlooked.This review examines the multi-scale structure of bamboo PCs,including their microcapsules,multi-wall layers,and pits,which provide the structural foundation for diverse applications.Various physical and chemical isolation methods,impacting the properties of extracted PCs,are also discussed.Notably,the review explores the promising applications of bamboo PCs,highlighting their use as filler materials in formaldehyde-free composites,as components in phase-change materials and supercapacitors,as sources for biodegradable microcapsules and antimicrobial hydrogels,as precursors for activated carbon in environmental remediation,and as a valuable feedstock for biomass refining processes.This comprehensive analysis underscores the importance of bamboo PCs in the development of renewable materials,encouraging further research to fully harness their capabilities.展开更多
The accumulation of non-biodegradable plastic debris in the environment raises serious concerns about potential long-term effects on the environment,the economy,and waste management.To assess the feasibility of substi...The accumulation of non-biodegradable plastic debris in the environment raises serious concerns about potential long-term effects on the environment,the economy,and waste management.To assess the feasibility of substitut-ing commercial plastics for a biodegradable renewable polymer for many applications,low-density polyethylene(LDPE)was mixed with varying concentrations of algal biomass(AB).Algae are considered a clean,renewable energy source because they don’t harm the environment and can be used to create bioplastics.Algal biomass grown in a high rate algal pond(HRAP)used for wastewater treatment used at 12.5-50 weight percent.Mechan-ical,thermal,and morphological characteristics of the LDPE/AB mixes were studied.Improved compatibility and uniformity between the LDPE matrix and algal biomass phase were evident in the morphology of LDPE/AB blends.Tensile strength(TS)and elastic modulus(EM)of the prepared LDPE/AB blends significantly decreased to 4.63 and 255 MPa,respectively.Nevertheless,by increasing the concentration of AB up to 25%and 37.5%,the mechanical properties enhanced and raised to(TS=6.75 MPa,EM=426 MPa)and(TS=7 MPa,EM=494 MPa),respectively.Using 25%and 37.5%of AB significantly enhanced the miscibility and interaction between algal bio-mass and LDPE polymer.However,increasing the percentage of AB led to a reduction in the thermal stability of the LDPE/AB.In contrast,compatibilized blends demonstrated better thermal stability compared to un-compa-tibilized blends.These findings indicate that it is possible to develop a blend with improved structural,thermal,and mechanical properties by partially replacing LDPE with biodegradable algal biomass.展开更多
In this study,the casting process is used to fabricate modified polyvinyl alcohol(PVA),starch(S),and carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC)polymer blend films(PVA/S/CMC)loaded with various concentrations of irondoped carbon qua...In this study,the casting process is used to fabricate modified polyvinyl alcohol(PVA),starch(S),and carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC)polymer blend films(PVA/S/CMC)loaded with various concentrations of irondoped carbon quantum dots(Fe-CQDs)and denoted as(PVA/S/CMC@Fe-CQDs).A one-step microwave strategy was employed as a facile method to prepare Fe-CQDs.Through a series of characterization techniques,fourier-transform infrared(FTIR)spectroscopy,x-ray diffraction(XRD)analysis,and scanning electron microscopy(SEM)have been used to show the successful integration of Fe-CQDs into the PVA/S/CMCmatrix.Loading the synthesized Fe-CQDs to the polymeric matrix significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of the films represented in the tensile strength,Young’s modulus,and hardness.However,the elongation decreased noticeably upon increasing the iron-doped carbon dots.The surface wettability was also studied by measuring the contact angle of the prepared films.The findings showed a noticeable elevation in these measurements by increasing the Fe-CQDs content,declaring the role of a hydrophobic character in these nanoparticles when introduced into a hydrophilic polymeric system.The dielectric characteristics of the reinforced polymer composite films were evaluated.These results revealed that the ac-conductivity of the investigated films was boosted with increasing Fe-CQDs’ratio and frequency.The PVA/S/CMC@Fe-CQDs films possess substantial potential for efficient energy storage applications.展开更多
Here,we report a comprehensive study on the characterization of cotton biomass residue,its conversion into carbon-based materials via pyrolysis,and its application as an electrochemical sensor for ascorbic acid(AA).Th...Here,we report a comprehensive study on the characterization of cotton biomass residue,its conversion into carbon-based materials via pyrolysis,and its application as an electrochemical sensor for ascorbic acid(AA).The compositions,morphologies,and structures of the resulting materials were investigated using XRD,FTIR,TGA,SEM,and EDS.Pyrolysis was carried out in an air atmosphere at different temperatures(300℃ and 400℃)and durations(1,60,and 240min),leading to the transformation of lignocellulosic cotton residue into carbon-basedmaterials embedded with inorganic nanoparticles,including carbonates,sulfates,chlorates,and phosphates of potassium,calcium,and magnesium.These inorganic nanoparticles exhibited irregular shapes with sizes ranging from 50 to 150 nm.The pyrolysis conditions significantly influenced both the mass ratio and the crystallinity of the inorganic phases,with treatment at 400℃ for 60 min resulting in enhanced crystallinity and an inorganic content of 54.4%.The cotton biomass-based nanomaterials were used in the construction of carbon paste electrodes(CPEs)and evaluated in PBS for AA oxidation.The electrocatalytic performance increased with the inorganic nanoparticle content.Among all,the sample pyrolyzed at 400℃ for 60 min demonstrated the highest sensitivity(3.31±0.16μA(mmol⋅L^(−1)),along with low limits of detection(2.90±1.87μmol⋅L^(−1))and quantification(9.66±6.23μmol⋅L^(−1)).These promising sensor characteristics highlight the potential of cotton biomass residue as a renewable source of electroactive nanomaterials,considering the simplicity of the carbon material preparation process and the ease of electrode fabrication.展开更多
Cellulose is a renewable biomass material and natural polymer which is abundantly available on Earth,and includes agricultural wastes,forestry residues,and woody materials.The excellent and smart characteristics of ce...Cellulose is a renewable biomass material and natural polymer which is abundantly available on Earth,and includes agricultural wastes,forestry residues,and woody materials.The excellent and smart characteristics of cellulose materials,such as lightweight,biocompatibility,biodegradability,high mechanical strength/stiffness and low thermal expansibility,have made cellulose a highpotential material for various industry applications.Cellulose has recently been discovered as a smart material in the electroactive polymers family which carries the name of cellulose-based electroactive paper(EAPap).The shear piezoelectricity in cellulose polymers is able to induce large displacement output,low actuation voltage,and low power consumption in the application of biomimetic sensors/actuators and electromechanical system.The present study provides an overview of biomass pretreatment from various lignocellulosic cellulose(LC)resources and nanocellulose production via TEMPO-mediated oxidation reaction,followed by the production of different types of EAPap versus its performance,and lastly the applications of EAPap in different areas and industries.Specifically,LC biomass consists mainly of cellulose having a small content of hemicelluloses and lignins which form a defensive inner structure against the degradation of plant cell wall.Thus,selective approaches are discussed to ensure proper extraction of cellulosic fibers from complex biomass for further minimization to nano-dimensions.In addition,a comprehensive review of the development of cellulose-based EAPap as well as fabrication,characterization,performance enhancement and applications of EAPap devices are discussed herein.展开更多
Globally,fossil fuel dependence has created several environmental challenges and climate change.Hence,creating other alternative renewable and ecologically friendly bio-energy sources is necessary.Lignocellulosic biom...Globally,fossil fuel dependence has created several environmental challenges and climate change.Hence,creating other alternative renewable and ecologically friendly bio-energy sources is necessary.Lignocellulosic biomass has gained significant attention recently as a renewable material for biofuel production.The large amounts of plantain and banana plant parts wasted after harvesting,as well as the peels generated daily by the fruit market and industries,demonstrate the potential of bioenergy resources.This review briefly assesses plantain and banana plant biomass(PBB)generated in the developing,developed,and underdeveloped countries,the consumable parts,and feasible products yield.It emphasized the advantages and disadvantages of the commonly adopted treatment technologies of composting,incineration,and landfilling.Further,the utilization of PBB as catalysts in biodiesel synthesis was briefly highlighted.To optimize recovery of biofuel,different integration routes of pyrolysis,anaerobic digestion,fermentation,hydrothermal carbonization,hydrothermal liquefaction,and hydrothermal gasification for the valorization of the PBB were proposed.The complex compounds present in the PBB(hemicellulose,cellulose,and lignin)can be converted into valuable bio-products such as methane gas and bio-ethanol for bioenergy,and nutrients to promote bioactive ingredients.The investigation of the viability and innovation potential of the integrated routes’technology is necessary to improve the circular bio-economy and the recovery of biofuels from biomass waste,particularly PBB.展开更多
Corn starch(CS)is a renewable,biodegradable polysaccharide valued for its film-forming ability,yet native CS films exhibit lowmechanical strength,highwater sensitivity,and limited thermal stability.This study improves...Corn starch(CS)is a renewable,biodegradable polysaccharide valued for its film-forming ability,yet native CS films exhibit lowmechanical strength,highwater sensitivity,and limited thermal stability.This study improves CS-based films by blending with poly(vinyl alcohol)(PVA)or glycerol(GLY)and using citric acid(CA)as a green,non-toxic cross-linker.Composite films were prepared by casting CS–PVA or CS-GLY with CA at 0%-0.20%(w/w of starch).The influence of CA on physicochemical,mechanical,optical,thermal,and water barrier properties was evaluated.CA crosslinking markedly enhanced the tensile strength,water resistance,and thermal stability of CS-PVA films while increasing transparency in CS–GLY films.At 0.20%CA,the composite achieved 34.99MPa tensile strength,reducedwater vapor permeability,andminimized water uptake.FTIR confirmed ester bond formation between CAand hydroxyl groups of CS,PVA,and GLY,whereas thermal analysis showed higher decomposition temperatures and lower weight loss in crosslinked films.Increasing CA levels also decreased opacity and improved light transmittance,indicating greater homogeneity and reduced crystallinity.This dual-polymer matrix combined with a natural crosslinking strategy provides a sustainable route to high-performance,biodegradable CS-based packaging materials.展开更多
Photocurable systems are more effective,faster and require less energy than conventional thermal curing methods.To facilitate the ongoing transition toward a biobased economy,photoactive compounds were synthesized fro...Photocurable systems are more effective,faster and require less energy than conventional thermal curing methods.To facilitate the ongoing transition toward a biobased economy,photoactive compounds were synthesized from tall oil fatty acids(TOFA)which is a by-product from wood pulping.In this study,photoactive monomers were synthesized by two different chemical pathways using oleic acid and TOFA as raw materials.Firstly,double bonds present in TOFA were epoxidized,followed by epoxy ring-opening with acrylic acid which introduced photoactive functional groups into the fatty acid backbone.Intermediates and final products were analysed using titration methods(acidic value,epoxy value,iodine value)and FTIR.The preferred final product(3-acryloyloxy-2-hydroxypropyl)-9-hydroxy-10-acryoyloxystearate(Acr-St)was synthesized by both pathways.In the case of oleic acid,a compound of Acr-St was yielded,while in case of TOFA,the Acr-St was present in mixture along with TOFA acryloyloxy derivates(TOFA-acr.der.).The final products were photopolymerized using UV irradiation(396 nm)and as a photoinitiator 3 wt%solution of TPO(2,4,6–trimethylbenzoyl diphenylphosphine oxide)was used.However,only the synthesis using oleic acid yielded a photocurable compound.展开更多
Efficient utilization of biomass for the supply of energy and synthetic materials would mitigate the heavy reliance on fossil resources and the growing CO_(2) emission, thus contributing to establishing sustainable an...Efficient utilization of biomass for the supply of energy and synthetic materials would mitigate the heavy reliance on fossil resources and the growing CO_(2) emission, thus contributing to establishing sustainable and carbon–neutral societies. Much effort has been devoted to catalytic transformations of lignocellulosic biomass, the most abundant and nonedible form of biomass.展开更多
The global energy crisis and overconsumption of non-renewable resources have depleted natural resources, climatic changes with global warming, and rise in sea level. The research on alternate sources and chemicals has...The global energy crisis and overconsumption of non-renewable resources have depleted natural resources, climatic changes with global warming, and rise in sea level. The research on alternate sources and chemicals has resulted in the usage of green materials. These biomaterials are sustainable sources, biodegradable, and are abundant in nature. The replacement of petrochemicals with biopolymers has gained much importance in this aspect. Conventionally, polyvinyl alcohol is employed as a protective colloid in polyvinyl acetate adhesive. Polyvinyl alcohol has the limitation of petroleum origin, is replaced by biopolymers. Starch being a biopolymer, has gained interest in replacing polyvinyl alcohol as a stabilizer. Cellulose has a low cost, and the most abundant biomaterial finds application as a reinforcing agent in conventional adhesives. Exploring cellulose as a stabilizer for polyvinyl acetate emulsion polymerization with reinforcement has created potential applicability of cellulose in adhesives. Surface hydroxyl groups in cellulose act as sites for functionalization, making it material for the adhesive sector. This review paper aims to showcase biomaterials, namely starch, and cellulose, in the adhesive field. A detailed review of cellulose as functional filler for polyvinyl acetate emulsion adhesives has been explained.展开更多
As the world's population exponentially grows,so does the need for the production of food,with cereal production growing annually from an estimated 1.0 billion to 2.5 billion tons within the last few decades.This ...As the world's population exponentially grows,so does the need for the production of food,with cereal production growing annually from an estimated 1.0 billion to 2.5 billion tons within the last few decades.This rapid growth in food production results in an ever increasing amount of agricultural wastes,of which already occupies nearly 50%of the total landfill area.For example,is the billions of dry tons of cellulose-containing spent coffee grounds disposed in landfills annually.This paper seeks to provide a method for isolating cellulose nanocrystals(CNCs)from spent coffee grounds,in order to recycle and utilize the cellulosic waste material which would otherwise have no applications.CNCs have already been shown to have vast applications in the polymer engineering field,mainly utilized for their high strength to weight ratio for reinforcement of polymer-based nanocomposites.A successful method of purifying and hydrolyzing the spent coffee grounds in order to isolate usable CNCs was established.The CNCs were then characterized using current techniques to determine important chemical and physical properties.A few crucial properties determined were aspect ratio of 12±3,crystallinity of 74.2%,surface charge density of(48.4±6.2)mM/kg cellulose,and the ability to successfully reinforce a polymer based nanocomposite.These characteristics compare well to other literature data and common commercial sources of CNCs.展开更多
There has been an increasing interest <span style="font-family:"">in <span style="font-family:"">research on using bio-renewable polymers as a replacement to traditional synth...There has been an increasing interest <span style="font-family:"">in <span style="font-family:"">research on using bio-renewable polymers as a replacement to traditional synthetic polymers based on petroleum resources for adhesive applications. Cellulose, which is the most abundant biopolymer finds application as a reinforcing agent in conventional adhesives. However, natural polymer cellulose suffers from a few drawbacks like poor water resistance, low mechanical strength, and compatibility within the hydrophobic matrix. For emerging as sustainable alternatives for synthetic polymers, cellulose and its derivatives must have comparable physical, chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties to those of synthetic polymers. To achieve this, cellulose has been chemically modified as it has free hydroxyl groups which act as a site for modification. Among various techniques used crosslinking and silane modification have shown better properties. Various silanes have been identified and used for modifying both micro-cellulose and nano-cellulose, by the formation of covalent bonds. Silanes have the ability to react with the low number of free hydroxyl groups present in the cellulose surfaces, therefore promotes surface modification. Hence referring to the increase in the research works related to the silane modification of cellulose and its applicability focusing on wood adhesives, the main aim of this review paper is to summarize various works relating to this field.展开更多
Earthen Building Materials and Methods(EBMM)exhibit excellent environmental,health,indoor air quality and affordability benefits.Despite these advantages,EBMM are not yet broadly implemented in mainstream construction...Earthen Building Materials and Methods(EBMM)exhibit excellent environmental,health,indoor air quality and affordability benefits.Despite these advantages,EBMM are not yet broadly implemented in mainstream construction.The main barriers and gaps to implementing earthen construction are analyzed through 126 survey responses and 10 in-depth interviews of a range of experts and end-users,and possible solutions to overcoming these barriers are presented.Specifically,the research indicates that according to earthen construction experts and potential homeowners,inability or difficulty in obtaining building permits is the strongest barrier to implementation.Additionally,existing technical data and environmental assessments must be synthesized and enumerated in order to support decision makers in advancing earthen building policy.展开更多
基金funded by the Russian Science Foundation(RSF),grantNo.24-23-00558,https://rscf.ru/en/project/24-23-00558/(accessed on 04 February 2025).
文摘The development of actuators based on ionic polymers as soft robotics,artificial muscles,and sensors is currently considered one of the most urgent topics.They are lightweight materials,in addition to their high efficiency,and they can be controlled by a low power source.Nevertheless,the most popular ionic polymers are derived from fossil-based resources.Hence,it is now deemed crucial to produce these actuators using sustainable materials.In this review,the use of ionic polymeric materials as actuators is reviewed through the emphasis on their role in the domain of renewablematerials.The reviewencompasses recent advancements inmaterial formulation and performance enhancement,alongside a comparative analysis with conventional actuator systems.It was found that renewable polymeric actuators based on ionic gels and conductive polymers are easier to prepare compared to ionic polymermetal composites.In addition,the proportion of actuator manufacturing utilizing renewable materials rose to 90%,particularly for ion gel actuators,which was related to the possibility of using renewable polymers as ionic or conductive substances.Moreover,the possible improvements in biopolymeric actuators will experience an annual rise of at least 10%over the next decade,correlating with the growth of their market,which aligns with the worldwide goal of reducing global warming.Additionally,compared to fossil-derived polymers,the decomposition rate of renewable materials reaches 100%,while biodegradable fossil-based substances can exceed 60%within several weeks.Ultimately,this review aims to elucidate the potential of ionic polymeric materials as a viable and sustainable solution for future actuator technologies.
基金funded by Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation(TEKES),Academy of Finland,Centennial Foundation of Finnish Technology Industries,and Finnish Forest Foundation.
文摘Radio frequency identification (RFID) provides great potential for different Internet of Things (IOT) applications. In the future, material choices in these IOT devices will have a huge effect on the environment and thus use of renewable materials is a growing trend. In this paper, passive ultra high frequency (UHF) RFID tags were inkjet-printed directly on wood, paper, and cardboard substrates, and their performance was evaluated by measuring two key properties: threshold power and theoretical read range. According to our measurements, the tags on wood showed read ranges of 7 - 8 meters, the tags on cardboard exhibited read ranges of 4 - 7 meters, and the tags printed on paper showed read ranges of 2 - 7 meters through the global UHF RFID band. According to these results, the performance of these inkjet-printed UHF RFID tags is sufficient for many IOT devices and potential applications e.g. in construction and packaging industry.
基金funded by the following grants,including the Key Research and Development Programof Shaanxi Province(Nos.2023-LL-QY-42,2024NC-ZDCYL-02-05)the Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology Research Initiation Grant Program(No.1960323102)+1 种基金the Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology Special Program for Cultivation of Frontier Interdisciplinary Fields(No.X20230079)the Open Fund for the Key Laboratory of Soil and Plant Nutrition of Ningxia(No.ZHS202401).
文摘With the rapid development of industry,the environmental problems caused by heavy metal arsenic and antimony are becoming increasingly serious.Therefore,it is urgent to solve the problem of arsenic and antimony pollution in the water environment.Renewable carbon-based materials,as a kind of adsorbent widely used in wastewater treatment,have been the focus of scholars’research for many years.In this review,the preparation methods,characteristics,and applications of renewable carbon-based materials(biochar,activated carbon,carbon nanotubes,and graphene)for the removal of arsenic and antimony are described in detail.Based on adsorption kinetics,isothermal adsorption,temperature,pH,and coexisting ions,we discuss the process of adsorption of arsenic and antimony by renewable carbon-based materials,explore the mechanism of adsorption of anions in water by renewable carbon-basedmaterials,and comparatively analyze the differences in adsorption performance of arsenic and antimony by different renewable carbon-based materials.Compared with biochar,activated carbon,carbon nanotube,and graphene renewable materials loaded with iron-manganese oxides have better removal effects on arsenic and antimony wastewater.Extensive research data shows that biochar,as a renewable material,is recommended,followed by activated carbon.Both are recommended because of their excellent adsorption properties and low production costs.Finally,the prospects and challenges of the application of renewable carbon-based materials in wastewater treatment are discussed,and the directions and development trends of future research are pointed out,which provide references and insights for further promoting the application of renewable carbon-based materials in wastewater treatment.
基金funded by the Russian Science Foundation,grant number 23-64-10007.
文摘The article presents the results of a study on the possibility of synthesizing biodegradable poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)[P(3HB-co-4HB)]from renewable waste fish oil(WFO)by the Cupriavidus necator B-10646 bacterium.For the first time,waste oil generated during the processing of Sprattus balticus in the pro-duction of sprats was used as the main carbon substrate for the synthesis of P(3HB-co-4HB),andε-caprolactone was used as a precursor instead of the more expensiveγ-butyrolactone.Samples of P(3HB-co-4HB)with a 4HB monomer content from 7.4 to 11.6 mol.%were synthesized,and values of the bacterial biomass yield and the total yield of the copolymer were comparable with the control(where butyric acid was used as carbon source).The following properties of the samples were studied:molecular weight,temperature characteristics,thermal behavior,isothermal crystallization of melts,and the formation of spherulites.The renewable fatty substrate of complex composition was used to synthesize samples of technologically advanced low-crystallinity P(3HB-co-4HB)with significant proportions of 4HB,without impairing the physicochemical properties of the polymer.The biotech-nological process involving the use of renewable WFO andε-caprolactone can be employed to reduce the costs of producing a promising“green”bioplastic and make it more affordable.
文摘Fossil fuels have sustained the prosperity of human civilization for centuries since the invention of internal combustion engine during the first industrial revolution. However, several drawbacks also come along with the wide-spread adoption of fossil fuels, namely, energy shortage, environmental pollution, global warm- ing, and so on. It is therefore highly desirable to conduct renewable and clean energy innovation, in an effort to power the world with alternative and affordable energy. To realize this goal,
文摘This review is composed of three main parts each of which is written by well-known top specialists that have been,in a way or other,also the main participants of the majority of the developments reported.Thus,after a general part covering the grand lines and more in-depth views of more recent tannin,lignin,carbohydrate and soy bioadhesives,somemix of the other bio raw materials with soy protein and soy flour and some other differently sourced bioadhesives for wood,this review presents a more in-depth part on starch-based wood adhesives and a more indepth part covering plant protein-based adhesives.It must be kept in mind that the review is focused on completely or almost completely biosourced adhesives,the fashionable adhesives derived from mixes of biosourced materials with synthetic resins having been intentionally excluded.This choice was made as the latter constitute only an intermediate interval,possibly temporary if even for a somewhat long times,towards a final full bioeconomy of scale in this field.This review also focuses on more recent results,mainly obtained in the last 10–20 years,thus on adhesive formulations really innovative and sometimes even non-traditional.In all these fields there is still a lot of possibility of innovation for relevant formulation as this field is still in rapid growth.
基金funded by the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia(UTM)through research Grant Number:06E05.
文摘The increasing severity of air pollution necessitates more effective and sustained air filtration technology.Concurrently,the desire for more environmentally friendly,sustainable materials with better filtering performance and less environmental impact drives the move away from conventional synthetic membranes.This review presents lignocellulosic biocomposite(LigBioComp)membranes as an alternative to traditional synthetic membranes.It focuses on their materials,fabrication,and functionalization techniques while exploring challenges and proposing methods for resourceful utilization.Renowned for their abundance and renewable nature,lignocellulosic materials consist of cellulose,hemicellulose,and lignin.Various applications can benefit from their antibacterial properties,large surface area,and remarkable mechanical strength.LigBioComp membranes are fabricated through casting,electrospinning,and freeze-drying,with advancements in fabrication techniques enhancing their performance and applicability.It is suggested to use solvent-free or low-solvent techniques such as Layer-by-Layer assembly to minimize environmental impact.Freeze-drying and electrospinning with green solvents can be used for achieving specific membrane properties,though energy consumption should be considered.Apply dry-wet spinning and solvent casting processes selectively.Functional groups,including carboxyl,hydroxyl,or amino groups,can significantly improve the membrane’s capacity to capture particulate matter.Chemical etching or the precise deposition of nanoparticles can further optimize pore size and distribution.The choice of chemicals and methods is critical in functionalization,with silane coupling agents,polyethyleneimine,and polydopamine.Future research should prioritize refining fabrication methods,advancing functionalization strategies,and conducting performance and recyclability assessments on hybrid and composite materials.This will enhance integrated systems and contribute to the development of smart filters.
基金financially supported by the Fundamental Research Funds of CAF(CAFYBB2022QA004).
文摘Bamboo parenchymal cells(PCs)represent an underutilized resource with significant potential as a sustainable and versatile bio-based material.Despite the extensive research on bamboo fibers,PCs,comprising a considerable portion of bamboo,have been largely overlooked.This review examines the multi-scale structure of bamboo PCs,including their microcapsules,multi-wall layers,and pits,which provide the structural foundation for diverse applications.Various physical and chemical isolation methods,impacting the properties of extracted PCs,are also discussed.Notably,the review explores the promising applications of bamboo PCs,highlighting their use as filler materials in formaldehyde-free composites,as components in phase-change materials and supercapacitors,as sources for biodegradable microcapsules and antimicrobial hydrogels,as precursors for activated carbon in environmental remediation,and as a valuable feedstock for biomass refining processes.This comprehensive analysis underscores the importance of bamboo PCs in the development of renewable materials,encouraging further research to fully harness their capabilities.
文摘The accumulation of non-biodegradable plastic debris in the environment raises serious concerns about potential long-term effects on the environment,the economy,and waste management.To assess the feasibility of substitut-ing commercial plastics for a biodegradable renewable polymer for many applications,low-density polyethylene(LDPE)was mixed with varying concentrations of algal biomass(AB).Algae are considered a clean,renewable energy source because they don’t harm the environment and can be used to create bioplastics.Algal biomass grown in a high rate algal pond(HRAP)used for wastewater treatment used at 12.5-50 weight percent.Mechan-ical,thermal,and morphological characteristics of the LDPE/AB mixes were studied.Improved compatibility and uniformity between the LDPE matrix and algal biomass phase were evident in the morphology of LDPE/AB blends.Tensile strength(TS)and elastic modulus(EM)of the prepared LDPE/AB blends significantly decreased to 4.63 and 255 MPa,respectively.Nevertheless,by increasing the concentration of AB up to 25%and 37.5%,the mechanical properties enhanced and raised to(TS=6.75 MPa,EM=426 MPa)and(TS=7 MPa,EM=494 MPa),respectively.Using 25%and 37.5%of AB significantly enhanced the miscibility and interaction between algal bio-mass and LDPE polymer.However,increasing the percentage of AB led to a reduction in the thermal stability of the LDPE/AB.In contrast,compatibilized blends demonstrated better thermal stability compared to un-compa-tibilized blends.These findings indicate that it is possible to develop a blend with improved structural,thermal,and mechanical properties by partially replacing LDPE with biodegradable algal biomass.
文摘In this study,the casting process is used to fabricate modified polyvinyl alcohol(PVA),starch(S),and carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC)polymer blend films(PVA/S/CMC)loaded with various concentrations of irondoped carbon quantum dots(Fe-CQDs)and denoted as(PVA/S/CMC@Fe-CQDs).A one-step microwave strategy was employed as a facile method to prepare Fe-CQDs.Through a series of characterization techniques,fourier-transform infrared(FTIR)spectroscopy,x-ray diffraction(XRD)analysis,and scanning electron microscopy(SEM)have been used to show the successful integration of Fe-CQDs into the PVA/S/CMCmatrix.Loading the synthesized Fe-CQDs to the polymeric matrix significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of the films represented in the tensile strength,Young’s modulus,and hardness.However,the elongation decreased noticeably upon increasing the iron-doped carbon dots.The surface wettability was also studied by measuring the contact angle of the prepared films.The findings showed a noticeable elevation in these measurements by increasing the Fe-CQDs content,declaring the role of a hydrophobic character in these nanoparticles when introduced into a hydrophilic polymeric system.The dielectric characteristics of the reinforced polymer composite films were evaluated.These results revealed that the ac-conductivity of the investigated films was boosted with increasing Fe-CQDs’ratio and frequency.The PVA/S/CMC@Fe-CQDs films possess substantial potential for efficient energy storage applications.
基金financial support of Brazilian agencies FAPESC/ACAFE,CAPES,CNPq and Nationals Institutes of Science and Technology of Carbon Nanomaterials(INCT-Nanocarbon,421701/2017-0)Nanomaterials for Life(INCT Nano Life,406079/2022-6)+2 种基金J.P.M.C.A.acknowledges his scientific initiation(PIBIT)grant from CNPq,D.O.S.thanks CAPES for his post-doctoral grant(PNPD/CAPES 2017-2019)J.A.is grateful for his grant from CNPq(CNPq 303633/2023-9)the financial support from FAPESC through various projects(contracts:2018TR1546,2023TR001521 and 2024TR002662).
文摘Here,we report a comprehensive study on the characterization of cotton biomass residue,its conversion into carbon-based materials via pyrolysis,and its application as an electrochemical sensor for ascorbic acid(AA).The compositions,morphologies,and structures of the resulting materials were investigated using XRD,FTIR,TGA,SEM,and EDS.Pyrolysis was carried out in an air atmosphere at different temperatures(300℃ and 400℃)and durations(1,60,and 240min),leading to the transformation of lignocellulosic cotton residue into carbon-basedmaterials embedded with inorganic nanoparticles,including carbonates,sulfates,chlorates,and phosphates of potassium,calcium,and magnesium.These inorganic nanoparticles exhibited irregular shapes with sizes ranging from 50 to 150 nm.The pyrolysis conditions significantly influenced both the mass ratio and the crystallinity of the inorganic phases,with treatment at 400℃ for 60 min resulting in enhanced crystallinity and an inorganic content of 54.4%.The cotton biomass-based nanomaterials were used in the construction of carbon paste electrodes(CPEs)and evaluated in PBS for AA oxidation.The electrocatalytic performance increased with the inorganic nanoparticle content.Among all,the sample pyrolyzed at 400℃ for 60 min demonstrated the highest sensitivity(3.31±0.16μA(mmol⋅L^(−1)),along with low limits of detection(2.90±1.87μmol⋅L^(−1))and quantification(9.66±6.23μmol⋅L^(−1)).These promising sensor characteristics highlight the potential of cotton biomass residue as a renewable source of electroactive nanomaterials,considering the simplicity of the carbon material preparation process and the ease of electrode fabrication.
文摘Cellulose is a renewable biomass material and natural polymer which is abundantly available on Earth,and includes agricultural wastes,forestry residues,and woody materials.The excellent and smart characteristics of cellulose materials,such as lightweight,biocompatibility,biodegradability,high mechanical strength/stiffness and low thermal expansibility,have made cellulose a highpotential material for various industry applications.Cellulose has recently been discovered as a smart material in the electroactive polymers family which carries the name of cellulose-based electroactive paper(EAPap).The shear piezoelectricity in cellulose polymers is able to induce large displacement output,low actuation voltage,and low power consumption in the application of biomimetic sensors/actuators and electromechanical system.The present study provides an overview of biomass pretreatment from various lignocellulosic cellulose(LC)resources and nanocellulose production via TEMPO-mediated oxidation reaction,followed by the production of different types of EAPap versus its performance,and lastly the applications of EAPap in different areas and industries.Specifically,LC biomass consists mainly of cellulose having a small content of hemicelluloses and lignins which form a defensive inner structure against the degradation of plant cell wall.Thus,selective approaches are discussed to ensure proper extraction of cellulosic fibers from complex biomass for further minimization to nano-dimensions.In addition,a comprehensive review of the development of cellulose-based EAPap as well as fabrication,characterization,performance enhancement and applications of EAPap devices are discussed herein.
基金This work was supported by the Start-Up Funding for Research of Nanchang Institute of Science and Technology(NGRCZX-22-03)School of Environment and Civil Engineering,Nanchang,Jiangxi,China.
文摘Globally,fossil fuel dependence has created several environmental challenges and climate change.Hence,creating other alternative renewable and ecologically friendly bio-energy sources is necessary.Lignocellulosic biomass has gained significant attention recently as a renewable material for biofuel production.The large amounts of plantain and banana plant parts wasted after harvesting,as well as the peels generated daily by the fruit market and industries,demonstrate the potential of bioenergy resources.This review briefly assesses plantain and banana plant biomass(PBB)generated in the developing,developed,and underdeveloped countries,the consumable parts,and feasible products yield.It emphasized the advantages and disadvantages of the commonly adopted treatment technologies of composting,incineration,and landfilling.Further,the utilization of PBB as catalysts in biodiesel synthesis was briefly highlighted.To optimize recovery of biofuel,different integration routes of pyrolysis,anaerobic digestion,fermentation,hydrothermal carbonization,hydrothermal liquefaction,and hydrothermal gasification for the valorization of the PBB were proposed.The complex compounds present in the PBB(hemicellulose,cellulose,and lignin)can be converted into valuable bio-products such as methane gas and bio-ethanol for bioenergy,and nutrients to promote bioactive ingredients.The investigation of the viability and innovation potential of the integrated routes’technology is necessary to improve the circular bio-economy and the recovery of biofuels from biomass waste,particularly PBB.
基金supported through RIIM Competition funding from the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education Agency,Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia and National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia according to the contract number:61/IV/KS/5/2023 and 2131/UN6.3.1/PT.00/2023.
文摘Corn starch(CS)is a renewable,biodegradable polysaccharide valued for its film-forming ability,yet native CS films exhibit lowmechanical strength,highwater sensitivity,and limited thermal stability.This study improves CS-based films by blending with poly(vinyl alcohol)(PVA)or glycerol(GLY)and using citric acid(CA)as a green,non-toxic cross-linker.Composite films were prepared by casting CS–PVA or CS-GLY with CA at 0%-0.20%(w/w of starch).The influence of CA on physicochemical,mechanical,optical,thermal,and water barrier properties was evaluated.CA crosslinking markedly enhanced the tensile strength,water resistance,and thermal stability of CS-PVA films while increasing transparency in CS–GLY films.At 0.20%CA,the composite achieved 34.99MPa tensile strength,reducedwater vapor permeability,andminimized water uptake.FTIR confirmed ester bond formation between CAand hydroxyl groups of CS,PVA,and GLY,whereas thermal analysis showed higher decomposition temperatures and lower weight loss in crosslinked films.Increasing CA levels also decreased opacity and improved light transmittance,indicating greater homogeneity and reduced crystallinity.This dual-polymer matrix combined with a natural crosslinking strategy provides a sustainable route to high-performance,biodegradable CS-based packaging materials.
文摘Photocurable systems are more effective,faster and require less energy than conventional thermal curing methods.To facilitate the ongoing transition toward a biobased economy,photoactive compounds were synthesized from tall oil fatty acids(TOFA)which is a by-product from wood pulping.In this study,photoactive monomers were synthesized by two different chemical pathways using oleic acid and TOFA as raw materials.Firstly,double bonds present in TOFA were epoxidized,followed by epoxy ring-opening with acrylic acid which introduced photoactive functional groups into the fatty acid backbone.Intermediates and final products were analysed using titration methods(acidic value,epoxy value,iodine value)and FTIR.The preferred final product(3-acryloyloxy-2-hydroxypropyl)-9-hydroxy-10-acryoyloxystearate(Acr-St)was synthesized by both pathways.In the case of oleic acid,a compound of Acr-St was yielded,while in case of TOFA,the Acr-St was present in mixture along with TOFA acryloyloxy derivates(TOFA-acr.der.).The final products were photopolymerized using UV irradiation(396 nm)and as a photoinitiator 3 wt%solution of TPO(2,4,6–trimethylbenzoyl diphenylphosphine oxide)was used.However,only the synthesis using oleic acid yielded a photocurable compound.
基金support by the National Key R&D Program of China(2018YFB1501602)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(22121001 and 22172127)。
文摘Efficient utilization of biomass for the supply of energy and synthetic materials would mitigate the heavy reliance on fossil resources and the growing CO_(2) emission, thus contributing to establishing sustainable and carbon–neutral societies. Much effort has been devoted to catalytic transformations of lignocellulosic biomass, the most abundant and nonedible form of biomass.
文摘The global energy crisis and overconsumption of non-renewable resources have depleted natural resources, climatic changes with global warming, and rise in sea level. The research on alternate sources and chemicals has resulted in the usage of green materials. These biomaterials are sustainable sources, biodegradable, and are abundant in nature. The replacement of petrochemicals with biopolymers has gained much importance in this aspect. Conventionally, polyvinyl alcohol is employed as a protective colloid in polyvinyl acetate adhesive. Polyvinyl alcohol has the limitation of petroleum origin, is replaced by biopolymers. Starch being a biopolymer, has gained interest in replacing polyvinyl alcohol as a stabilizer. Cellulose has a low cost, and the most abundant biomaterial finds application as a reinforcing agent in conventional adhesives. Exploring cellulose as a stabilizer for polyvinyl acetate emulsion polymerization with reinforcement has created potential applicability of cellulose in adhesives. Surface hydroxyl groups in cellulose act as sites for functionalization, making it material for the adhesive sector. This review paper aims to showcase biomaterials, namely starch, and cellulose, in the adhesive field. A detailed review of cellulose as functional filler for polyvinyl acetate emulsion adhesives has been explained.
文摘As the world's population exponentially grows,so does the need for the production of food,with cereal production growing annually from an estimated 1.0 billion to 2.5 billion tons within the last few decades.This rapid growth in food production results in an ever increasing amount of agricultural wastes,of which already occupies nearly 50%of the total landfill area.For example,is the billions of dry tons of cellulose-containing spent coffee grounds disposed in landfills annually.This paper seeks to provide a method for isolating cellulose nanocrystals(CNCs)from spent coffee grounds,in order to recycle and utilize the cellulosic waste material which would otherwise have no applications.CNCs have already been shown to have vast applications in the polymer engineering field,mainly utilized for their high strength to weight ratio for reinforcement of polymer-based nanocomposites.A successful method of purifying and hydrolyzing the spent coffee grounds in order to isolate usable CNCs was established.The CNCs were then characterized using current techniques to determine important chemical and physical properties.A few crucial properties determined were aspect ratio of 12±3,crystallinity of 74.2%,surface charge density of(48.4±6.2)mM/kg cellulose,and the ability to successfully reinforce a polymer based nanocomposite.These characteristics compare well to other literature data and common commercial sources of CNCs.
文摘There has been an increasing interest <span style="font-family:"">in <span style="font-family:"">research on using bio-renewable polymers as a replacement to traditional synthetic polymers based on petroleum resources for adhesive applications. Cellulose, which is the most abundant biopolymer finds application as a reinforcing agent in conventional adhesives. However, natural polymer cellulose suffers from a few drawbacks like poor water resistance, low mechanical strength, and compatibility within the hydrophobic matrix. For emerging as sustainable alternatives for synthetic polymers, cellulose and its derivatives must have comparable physical, chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties to those of synthetic polymers. To achieve this, cellulose has been chemically modified as it has free hydroxyl groups which act as a site for modification. Among various techniques used crosslinking and silane modification have shown better properties. Various silanes have been identified and used for modifying both micro-cellulose and nano-cellulose, by the formation of covalent bonds. Silanes have the ability to react with the low number of free hydroxyl groups present in the cellulose surfaces, therefore promotes surface modification. Hence referring to the increase in the research works related to the silane modification of cellulose and its applicability focusing on wood adhesives, the main aim of this review paper is to summarize various works relating to this field.
文摘Earthen Building Materials and Methods(EBMM)exhibit excellent environmental,health,indoor air quality and affordability benefits.Despite these advantages,EBMM are not yet broadly implemented in mainstream construction.The main barriers and gaps to implementing earthen construction are analyzed through 126 survey responses and 10 in-depth interviews of a range of experts and end-users,and possible solutions to overcoming these barriers are presented.Specifically,the research indicates that according to earthen construction experts and potential homeowners,inability or difficulty in obtaining building permits is the strongest barrier to implementation.Additionally,existing technical data and environmental assessments must be synthesized and enumerated in order to support decision makers in advancing earthen building policy.
