Digital elevation models(DEMs)are essential tools in environmental science,particularly for hazard assessments and landscape analyses.However,their application acrossmultiple environmental hazards simultaneously remai...Digital elevation models(DEMs)are essential tools in environmental science,particularly for hazard assessments and landscape analyses.However,their application acrossmultiple environmental hazards simultaneously remains in need for a multi-aspect critical assessment to promote their effectiveness in comprehensive risk management.This paper aims to review and critically assess the application of DEMs in mapping and managing specific environmental hazards,namely floods,landslides,and coastal erosion.In this regard,it seeks to promote their utility of hazard maps as key tools in disaster risk reduction and environmental planning by employing high-resolution DEMs integrated with advanced geographic information systems.The findings offer valuable insights into optimizing DEM technology for environmental management,contributing to safer and more resilient communities.The paper addresses an important gap in the geospatial analysis of natural hazards and serves as a foundational reference for future advancements in the field,emphasizing its importance to academic researchers and practical stakeholders in environmental and disaster management.展开更多
Tens of thousands of landslides were triggered by May 12, 2008 earthquake over a broad area. The main purpose of this article is to apply and verify earthquake-triggered landslide hazard analysis techniques by using w...Tens of thousands of landslides were triggered by May 12, 2008 earthquake over a broad area. The main purpose of this article is to apply and verify earthquake-triggered landslide hazard analysis techniques by using weight of evidence modeling in Qingshui （清水） River watershed, Deyang （德阳） City, Sichuan （四川） Province, China. Two thousand three hundred and twenty-one landslides were interpreted in the study area from aerial photographs and multi-source remote sensing imageries post-earthquake, verified by field surveys. The landslide inventory in the study area was established. A spatial database, including landslides and associated controlling parameters that may have influence on the occurrence of landslides, was constructed from topographic maps, geological maps, and enhanced thematic mapper （ETM＋） remote sensing imageries. The factors that influence landslide occurrence,such as slope angle, aspect, curvature, elevation, flow accumulation, distance from drainages, and distance from roads were calculated from the topographic maps. Lithology, distance from seismogenic fault, distance from all faults, and distance from stratigraphic boundaries were derived from the geological maps. Normalized difference vegetation index （NDV1） was extracted from ETM＋ images. Seismic intensity zoning was collected from Wenchuan （汶川） Ms8.0 Earthquake Intensity Distribution Map published by the China Earthquake Administration.Landslide hazard indices were calculated using the weight of evidence model, and landslide hazard maps were calculated from using different controlling parameters cases. The hazard map was compared with known landslide locations and verified. The success accuracy percentage of using all 13 controlling parameters was 71.82%. The resulting landslide hazard map showed five classes of landslide hazard, i.e., very high, high, moderate, low, and very low. The validation results showed satisfactory agreement between the hazard map and the existing landslides distribution data. The landslide hazard map can be used to identify and delineate unstable hazard-prone areas. It can also help planners to choose favorable locations for development schemes, such as infrastructural, buildings, road constructions, and environmental protection.展开更多
Flash flood hazard mapping is a supporting component of non-structural measures for flash flood prevention. Pilot case studies are necessary to develop more practicable methods for the technical support systems of fla...Flash flood hazard mapping is a supporting component of non-structural measures for flash flood prevention. Pilot case studies are necessary to develop more practicable methods for the technical support systems of flash flood hazard mapping. In this study, the headwater catchment of the Xiapu River Basin in central China was selected as a pilot study area for flash flood hazard mapping. A conceptual distributed hydrological model was developed for flood calculation based on the framework of the Xinanjiang model, which is widely used in humid and semi-humid regions in China. The developed model employs the geomorphological unit hydrograph method, which is extremely valuable when simulating the overland flow process in ungauged catchments, as compared with the original Xinanjiang model. The model was tested in the pilot study area, and the results agree with the measured data on the whole. After calibration and validation, the model is shown to be a useful tool for flash flood calculation. A practicable method for flash flood hazard mapping using the calculated peak discharge and digital elevation model data was presented, and three levels of flood hazards were classified. The resulting flash flood hazard maps indicate that the method successfully predicts the spatial distribution of flash flood hazards, and it can meet the current requirements in China.展开更多
This paper reports a method to make hazard maps of sediment disasters resulting from an earthquake and following heavy rainfall for the entire region of Gunma prefecture, Japan. Firstly, we identified the slopes in th...This paper reports a method to make hazard maps of sediment disasters resulting from an earthquake and following heavy rainfall for the entire region of Gunma prefecture, Japan. Firstly, we identified the slopes in the study area, which are susceptible to large-scale landslides and land failures during an earthquake with a magnitude of seven on the Richter scale. To analyze the sheer volume of the data, we employed a statistical method to evaluate the susceptibility, mainly considering geomorphologic conditions. Secondly, we extracted mudflow and slope failure susceptible areas and potential flooding zones resulting from a damming at a river triggered by the earthquake and heavy rainfall, and we identified the settlements which would be isolated by the road disruption caused by the sediment disasters. As the result, 359 settlements were classified as potential isolation areas. Combining the above-mentioned susceptibility maps, we obtained two types of sediment disaster hazard maps of the study area, depicting the potential hazards which would occur during the earthquake and the disasters which would be caused by heavy rainfall following the quake, respectively. These hazard maps and the disaster information would be useful for the regional disaster prevention planning and countermeasures in the future.展开更多
Flooding has been one of the recurring occurred natural disasters that induce detrimental impacts on humans, property and environment. Frequent floods is a severe issue and a complex natural phenomenon in Pakistan wit...Flooding has been one of the recurring occurred natural disasters that induce detrimental impacts on humans, property and environment. Frequent floods is a severe issue and a complex natural phenomenon in Pakistan with respect to population affected, environmental degradations, and socio-economic and property damages. The Super Flood, which hit Sindh in 2010, has turned out to be a wakeup call and has underlined the overwhelming challenge of natural calamities, as 2010 flood and the preceding flood in 2011 caused a huge loss to life, property and land use. These floods resulted in disruption of power, telecommunication, and water utilities in many districts of Pakistan, including 22 districts of Sindh. These floods call for risk assessment and hazard mapping of Lower Indus Basin flowing in the Sindh Province as such areas were also inundated in 2010 flood, which were not flooded in the past in this manner. This primary focus of this paper is the use of Multi-criteria Evaluation (MCE) methods in integration with the Geographical Information System (GIS) for the analysis of areas prone to flood. This research demonstrated how GIS tools can be used to produce map of flood vulnerable areas using MCE techniques. Slope, Aspect, Curvature, Soil, and Distance from Drainage, Land use, Precipitation, Flow Direction, and Flow Accumulation are taken as the causative factors for flooding in Lower Indus Basin. Analytical Hierarchy Process-AHP was used for the calculation of weights of all these factors. Finally, a flood hazard Map of Lower Indus Basin was generated which delineates the flood prone areas in the Sindh province along Indus River Basin that could be inundated by potential flooding in future. It is aimed that flood hazard mapping and risk assessment using open source geographic information system can serve as a handy tool for the development of land-use strategies so as to decrease the impact from flooding.展开更多
This study addresses gaps in aftershock prediction research by proposing an interpretable hybrid machine learning model that leverages multi-source data.The model overcomes challenges related to the selection of influ...This study addresses gaps in aftershock prediction research by proposing an interpretable hybrid machine learning model that leverages multi-source data.The model overcomes challenges related to the selection of influencing factors,model types,prediction result visualization,and decision mechanism interpretability.It integrates mainshock factors,geological features,site characteristics,and terrain conditions using geospatial information system(GIS)technology.By employing the stacking algorithm to optimize and combine XGBoost and LightGBM models,the proposed model significantly improves the prediction performance.Visualization through aftershock hazard mapping offers a robust tool for aftershock warning.The Shapley additive explanations(SHAP)model is used to explain the decision-making process from both global and local perspectives.Results show that,compared to the optimized XGBoost-CMA_ES and LightGBM-CMA_ES hybrid models,the stacking model achieves area under the curve(AUC)increases of 7.71%and 5.72% on the test set,respectively,with a maximum prediction accuracy of 0.9344.The hazard zoning map identifies high-risk areas mainly around fault lines and near the epicenter.As hazard levels rise,the proportion and density of aftershocks in these areas increase.The SHAP model results highlight the distance to fault as the most critical factor.The study integrates local explanations with on-site investigations,effectively visualizing the contributions of different factors to aftershocks.This research provides new tools and methods for enhancing aftershock warning and response.展开更多
Through the field survey, previous researches and interpretation of aerial photos, a landslide information database of Xiaojiang Valley, Yunnan Province was set up based on the remote sensing (RS) and geographic infor...Through the field survey, previous researches and interpretation of aerial photos, a landslide information database of Xiaojiang Valley, Yunnan Province was set up based on the remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) technologies. In the paper, a quantitative model for the landslide hazard assessment and zoning was presented, in which the potential energy could be obtained on basis of thorough analysis of the potential sliding volume, distance and direction of the landslide body. Taking landslide potential energy as the index of the hazard severity zonation, the study area was divided into severe, heavy, medium and light hazard zones.展开更多
Hazard maps are essential tools to aid decision makers in land-use planning,sustainable infrastructure development,and emergency preparedness.Despite the availability of historical data,there has been no attempt to pr...Hazard maps are essential tools to aid decision makers in land-use planning,sustainable infrastructure development,and emergency preparedness.Despite the availability of historical data,there has been no attempt to produce hazard maps for Kuwait.In cooperation with the World Bank,this study investigated the natural and anthropogenic hazards that affect Kuwait.The objective was to assess the hazards that face Kuwait and map the hazards of most concern.Hazard maps depicting the spatial distribution of hazard-prone areas are discussed in this article.Hazard assessment maps were generated using multiple datasets and techniques,including meteorological data,satellite imagery,and GIS.Hazard profiling identified a total of 25 hazards,of which five“priority”hazards were explored in detail:(1)surface water flooding;(2)dust storms and sand encroachment;(3)drought;(4)air pollution;and(5)oil spills.The results of this study can aid decision makers in targeting the hazards of most concern.The developed maps are valuable tools for emergency response and hazard mitigation.展开更多
The rapid growth of impervious areas in urban basins worldwide has increased the number of impermeable surfaces in cities,leading to severe flooding and significant economic losses for civilians.This trend highlights ...The rapid growth of impervious areas in urban basins worldwide has increased the number of impermeable surfaces in cities,leading to severe flooding and significant economic losses for civilians.This trend highlights the urgent need for methodologies that assess flood hazards and specifically address the direct impact on pedestrians,which is often overlooked in traditional flood hazard analyses.This study aims to evaluate a methodology for assessing the risk to pedestrians from hydrodynamic forces during urban floods,with a specific focus on Cúcuta,Colombia.The methodology couples research outcomes from other studies on the impact of floodwaters on individuals of different ages and sizes with 1D/2D hydrological modeling.Advanced computational algorithms for image recognition were used to measure water levels at 5-s intervals on November 6,2020,using drones for digital elevation model data collection.In Cúcuta,where flood risk is high and drainage infrastructure is limited,the PCSWMM(Computer-based Urban Stormwater Management Model)was calibrated and validated to simulate extreme flood events.The model incorporated urban infrastructure details and geomorphological parameters of Cúcuta's urban basin.Four return periods(5,10,50,100),with extreme rainfall of 3 h,were used to estimate the variability of the risk map.The output of the model was analyzed,and an integrated and time-varying comparison of the results was done.Results show that the regions of high-water depth and high velocity could vary significantly along the duration of the different extreme events.Also,from 5 to 100 years return period,the percentage of area at risk increased from 9.6%to 16.6%.The pedestrian sensitivity appears much higher than the increase in velocities or water depth individually.This study identified medium to high-risk locations,which are dynamic in time.We can conclude dynamics are spatiotemporal,and the added information layer of pedestrians brings vulnerability information that is also dynamic.Areas of immediate concern in Cúcuta can enhance pedestrian safety during flash flood events.The spatiotemporal variation of patterns requires further studies to map trajectories and sequences that machine learning models could capture.展开更多
The fifth-generation seismic hazard map for China's mainland(CSHM5) was developed based on the delineated seismic source models and the ground motion models(GMMs) for the peak ground acceleration(PGA) for four dif...The fifth-generation seismic hazard map for China's mainland(CSHM5) was developed based on the delineated seismic source models and the ground motion models(GMMs) for the peak ground acceleration(PGA) for four different seismic regions. In the present study, we developed a new set of GMMs as functions of the rupture distance or the closest distance to the projection of the rupture plane. The development of the GMMs is based on the projection method and GMMs from the NGA-West2 project. We then estimated, mapped, and compared the seismic hazard in terms of PGA and pseudo-spectral acceleration by using the new set of GMMs and other relevant GMMs, and two seismic source models-one used in developing CSHM5, which includes the fault orientation characterization and the other based on a spatially smoothed source model. The comparison of the estimated seismic hazard indicates that CSHM5 may significantly underestimate the seismic hazard. Part of this is likely due to the inclusion of an additional 15 km focal depth in the original GMM that is adopted for CSHM5. The comparison of the obtained standardized uniform hazard spectra(UHS) to the standardized response spectrum implemented in the current structural design code shows that the value of the latter is greater than that of the former for the natural vibration period less than about 0.1 s or greater than 0.4 s and this is reversed for the natural vibration period around 0.2 s. It is recommended that the use of UHS for design code making should be seriously considered, or at least, the shape of the current implemented standardized design spectrum could be improved.展开更多
It is well known that seismic hazard assessment should be implemented to design infrastructures in an earthquake-prone area such as Bengkulu.This paper presents local seismic hazard maps based on the response spectra ...It is well known that seismic hazard assessment should be implemented to design infrastructures in an earthquake-prone area such as Bengkulu.This paper presents local seismic hazard maps based on the response spectra of stiff and very dense soils in Bengkulu city,Indonesia.We collect the soil data and conduct the seismic wave propagation.The input motion for wave propagation analysis is generated from the spectral acceleration curves of stiff and dense soils.Various ground motion parameters such as peak ground acceleration,short-period and long-period spectral accelerations,and amplification factors are presented in microzonation maps.The results show that the peak ground acceleration in the study area ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 g,while the spectral acceleration varies between 0.5-1.5 g and 0.4-0.8 g for periods of 0.2 and 1 s,respectively.The amplification factor of the site is observed to vary from 0.5 to 1.6.Considering other spectral accelerations in Bengkulu,the spectral acceleration design shows a good performance.The results indicate the site characteristics of Bengkulu city,which can provide engineers with site class for structural building design.展开更多
The Tohoku-Oki earthquake （Mw 9.0） of March 11,2011, was the largest event in the history of Japan. This magnitude 9.0 mega-thrust earthquake initiated approximately 100 km off-shore of Miyagi prefecture and the rup...The Tohoku-Oki earthquake （Mw 9.0） of March 11,2011, was the largest event in the history of Japan. This magnitude 9.0 mega-thrust earthquake initiated approximately 100 km off-shore of Miyagi prefecture and the rupture extended 400-500 km along the Pacific plate. Due to the strong ground motions and tsunami associated by this event, approximately twenty thousand people were killed or missing and more than 220 thousands houses and buildings were totally or partially destroyed. This mega-thrust earthquake was not considered in the national seismic hazard maps for Japan that was published by the HERP （headquarters for earthquake research promotion） of Japan. By comparing the results of the seismic hazard assessment and observed strong ground motions, we understand that the results of assessment were underestimated in Fukushima prefecture and northern part of Ibaraki prefecture. Its cause primarily lies in that it failed to evaluate the Mw 9.0 mega-thrust earthquake in the long-term evaluation for seismic activities. On the other hand, another cause is that we could not make the functional framework which is prepared for treatment of uncertainty for probabilistic seismic hazard assessment work fully. Based on the lessons learned from this earthquake disaster and the experience that we have engaged in the seismic hazard mapping project of Japan, we consider problems and issues to be resolved for probabilistic seismic hazard assessment and make new proposals to improve probabilistic seismic hazard assessment for Japan.展开更多
Tephra fallout is an important type of hazard caused by explosive volcanic eruption, and numerical simulation has become a fast and effective approach to assess the dispersion and deposition of tephra fallout. Accordi...Tephra fallout is an important type of hazard caused by explosive volcanic eruption, and numerical simulation has become a fast and effective approach to assess the dispersion and deposition of tephra fallout. According to the improved 2D diffusion model of Suzuki （ 1983）, we edited a tephra diffusion program that can run in the Windows system. Based on previous data, we simulated the diffusion scope of the Jinlongdingzi volcanic eruption, which is the latest eruption in the Longgang volcanic cluster. The simulated results are in good agreement with the results from measurement in situ, indicating that the model is reliable and the parameters used in the model are suitable. By using wind profiles of ten years, 7, 021 simulations under different wind profiles were carried out, and then probabilistic hazard maps of tephra fallout were constructed for tephra thickness thresholds, lcm and 0.5cm. This study can provide an important scientific basis for volcanic hazard analysis, risk mitigation plans and countermeasures in the Longgang volcanic area.展开更多
The ice accretion load in Canadian structural design codes is developed based on an operational ice accretion prediction model.In the present study,three models are employed to predict the ice accretion amount on a fl...The ice accretion load in Canadian structural design codes is developed based on an operational ice accretion prediction model.In the present study,three models are employed to predict the ice accretion amount on a flat surface and horizontal wire at Canadian sites.The results confirm that the model used by Canadian practice for predicting ice accretion leads to a conservative estimate as compared to the remaining two models.The results also indicate that the use of the Gumbel distribution for the annual maximum ice accretion is adequate for regions prone to ice accretion and that the lognormal distribution may be considered for regions with a moderate or negligible amount of ice accretion.Maps of the ice accretion hazard at five selected Canadian sites are developed.Statistical analysis of an equivalent wind speed that is concurrent with the iced wire is carried out,showing that the concurrent wind speed for the 50-year return period value of the annual maximum ice accretion amount is smaller than the 50-year return period value of the annual maximum wind speed.It is shown that the statistical characteristics of the annual maximum concurrent wind speed on iced wire differ from that of the annual maximum wind speed.展开更多
This paper presents a comparative visualization strategy of slope failure susceptibility maps for analyzing different types of simultaneous occurrences of slope failures. Through the SEM （structural equation modeling...This paper presents a comparative visualization strategy of slope failure susceptibility maps for analyzing different types of simultaneous occurrences of slope failures. Through the SEM （structural equation modeling）, slope failure susceptibility maps are produced by using causal factors （i.e., geographical information, satellite remotely sensed data）. As for a conventional pair-wise comparative procedure, the differences between susceptibility maps are delineated on difference maps, that can be, however, applied for evaluating differences only between pairs of susceptibility maps. One of the strong requirements from specialists working on slope stability evaluation is a comparative and visualization strategy of susceptibility maps with respect to ＂different types of simultaneous slope failures＂, for which the discussion is insufficient in the previous research activities for constructing the quantitative models for slope failure hazard mapping. As a measure, a color composite map based on susceptibility maps has been produced. The combination of assigning susceptibility maps to RGB-color planes is determined based on an index of ＂NCCT （normalized correlated color temperature）＂ which represents the relationship between chromaticity and human visual perception. Through the cases examined, the result indicates that the proposed color composite map, as a heuristic visualization strategy, is useful for simultaneously evaluating the hazardous areas affected by ＂different types of slope failures＂.展开更多
A large number of debris flows occurred simultaneously at around 8:30 to 8:50 a.m.on July 27,2011,at the center of Seoul,Korea.This area is located in the southern part of Seoul and is a densely populated district.As ...A large number of debris flows occurred simultaneously at around 8:30 to 8:50 a.m.on July 27,2011,at the center of Seoul,Korea.This area is located in the southern part of Seoul and is a densely populated district.As a result of the debris flow event,16 people were killed,30 houses were buried,and 116 houses were damaged around Umyeon Mountain,a relatively small mountain with a height of 312.6 m.Since the debris flow event,field investigations on the initiation and transportation zones of debris flows have been carried out.Rainfall data were collected from the automatic weather stations(AWSs) which are operated by the Korea Meteorological Administration(KMA).Video files recorded by residents were also acquired and used to analyze the flow characteristics of the debris flow.Field investigation shows that about 40 debris flows occurred around Umyeon Mountain and most of the debris flows were initiated by small slope failures.The effects of the precipitation that triggered the debris flows were analyzed as well.A landslide hazard map which considers slope gradient and aspect,strength of soil,hazard record,rainfall conditions,and vegetation,was constructed and compared with the initiation zones of debris flows.展开更多
According to the principle of the eruption of debris flows, the new torrent classification techniques are brought forward. The torrent there can be divided into 4 types such as the debris flow torrent with high destru...According to the principle of the eruption of debris flows, the new torrent classification techniques are brought forward. The torrent there can be divided into 4 types such as the debris flow torrent with high destructive strength, the debris flow torrent, high sand-carrying capacity flush flood torrent and common flush flood by the techniques. In this paper, the classification indices system and the quantitative rating methods are presented. Based on torrent classification, debris flow torrent hazard zone mapping techniques by which the debris flow disaster early-warning object can be ascertained accurately are identified. The key techniques of building the debris flow disaster neural network (NN) real time forecasting model are given detailed explanations in this paper, including the determination of neural node at the input layer, the output layer and the implicit layer, the construction of knowledge source and the initial weight value and so on. With this technique, the debris flow disaster real-time forecasting neural network model is built according to the rainfall features of the historical debris flow disasters, which includes multiple rain factors such as rainfall of the disaster day, the rainfall of 15 days before the disaster day, the maximal rate of rainfall in one hour and ten minutes. It can forecast the probability, critical rainfall of eruption of the debris flows, through the real-time rainfall monitoring or weather forecasting. Based on the torrent classification and hazard zone mapping, combined with rainfall monitoring in the rainy season and real-time forecasting models, the debris flow disaster early-warning system is built. In this system, the GIS technique, the advanced international software and hardware are applied, which makes the system’s performance steady with good expansibility. The system is a visual information system that serves management and decision-making, which can facilitate timely inspect of the variation of the torrent type and hazardous zone, the torrent management, the early-warning of disasters and the disaster reduction and prevention.展开更多
The estimated seismic hazard based on the delineated seismic source model is used as the basis to assign the seismic design loads in Canadian structural design codes.An alternative for the estimation is based on a spa...The estimated seismic hazard based on the delineated seismic source model is used as the basis to assign the seismic design loads in Canadian structural design codes.An alternative for the estimation is based on a spatially smoothed source model.However,a quantification of differences in the Canadian seismic hazard maps(CanSHMs)obtained based on the delineated seismic source model and spatially smoothed model is unavailable.The quantification is valuable to identify epistemic uncertainty in the estimated seismic hazard and the degree of uncertainty in the CanSHMs.In the present study,we developed seismic source models using spatial smoothing and historical earthquake catalogue.We quantified the differences in the estimated Canadian seismic hazard by considering the delineated source model and spatially smoothed source models.For the development of the spatially smoothed seismic source models,we considered spatial kernel smoothing techniques with or without adaptive bandwidth.The results indicate that the use of the delineated seismic source model could lead to under or over-estimation of the seismic hazard as compared to those estimated based on spatially smoothed seismic source models.This suggests that an epistemic uncertainty caused by the seismic source models should be considered to map the seismic hazard.展开更多
The Japanese government has established a law to Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995. This paper evaluates the incentives of the policies related to the law. The data shows achieved in 2018 if the current trends of impro...The Japanese government has established a law to Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995. This paper evaluates the incentives of the policies related to the law. The data shows achieved in 2018 if the current trends of improvement will supports the school retrofit works that are carried out by the promote seismic retrofitting of buildings immediately after the Great effectiveness, efficiency, administrative feasibility and technological that the policy target of seismic safety of existing buildings will be be continued. In the field of school buildings, national government local governments, using the guideline for school retrofit. However, there are still significant issues to make all buildings safe. One of the key challenges is how to persuade the elderly who would not invest their money to improve their old houses. Another challenge is to make owners understand the importance and have priority in improving the seismic safety of buildings. Currently many efforts are taken by the local governments, such as holding seminars for local communities, preparing financial support schemes, providing consultancy for seismic assessment and making earthquake hazard maps. This paper also provides comments on the improvement of the current policies for promoting seismic retrofit based on some international experiences in retrofit of buildings.展开更多
Extreme snow loads can collapse roofs.This load is calculated based on the ground snow load(that is,the snow water equivalent on the ground).However,snow water equivalent(SWE) measurements are unavailable for most sit...Extreme snow loads can collapse roofs.This load is calculated based on the ground snow load(that is,the snow water equivalent on the ground).However,snow water equivalent(SWE) measurements are unavailable for most sites,while the ground snow depth is frequently measured and recorded.A new simple practical algorithm was proposed in this study to evaluate the SWE by utilizing ground snow depth,precipitation data,wind speed,and air temperature.For the evaluation,the precipitation was clas sified as snowfall or rainfall according to the air temperature,the snowfall or rainfall was then corrected for measurement error that is mainly caused by wind-induced undercatch,and the effect of snow water loss was considered.The developed algorithm was applied and validated using data from57 meteorological stations located in the northeastern region of China.The annual maximum SWE obtained based on the proposed algorithm was compared with that obtained from the actual SWE measurements.The return period values of the annual maximum ground snow load were estimated and compared to those obtained according to the procedure suggested by the Chinese structural design code.The comparison indicated that the use of the proposed algorithm leads to a good estimated SWE or ground snow load.Its use allowed the estimation of the ground snow load for sites without SWE measurement and facilitated snow hazard mapping.展开更多
文摘Digital elevation models(DEMs)are essential tools in environmental science,particularly for hazard assessments and landscape analyses.However,their application acrossmultiple environmental hazards simultaneously remains in need for a multi-aspect critical assessment to promote their effectiveness in comprehensive risk management.This paper aims to review and critically assess the application of DEMs in mapping and managing specific environmental hazards,namely floods,landslides,and coastal erosion.In this regard,it seeks to promote their utility of hazard maps as key tools in disaster risk reduction and environmental planning by employing high-resolution DEMs integrated with advanced geographic information systems.The findings offer valuable insights into optimizing DEM technology for environmental management,contributing to safer and more resilient communities.The paper addresses an important gap in the geospatial analysis of natural hazards and serves as a foundational reference for future advancements in the field,emphasizing its importance to academic researchers and practical stakeholders in environmental and disaster management.
基金supported by the International Scientific Joint Project of China (No. 2009DFA21280)the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40821160550)the Doctoral Candidate Innovation Research Support Program by Science & Technology Review (No. kjdb200902-5)
文摘Tens of thousands of landslides were triggered by May 12, 2008 earthquake over a broad area. The main purpose of this article is to apply and verify earthquake-triggered landslide hazard analysis techniques by using weight of evidence modeling in Qingshui （清水） River watershed, Deyang （德阳） City, Sichuan （四川） Province, China. Two thousand three hundred and twenty-one landslides were interpreted in the study area from aerial photographs and multi-source remote sensing imageries post-earthquake, verified by field surveys. The landslide inventory in the study area was established. A spatial database, including landslides and associated controlling parameters that may have influence on the occurrence of landslides, was constructed from topographic maps, geological maps, and enhanced thematic mapper （ETM＋） remote sensing imageries. The factors that influence landslide occurrence,such as slope angle, aspect, curvature, elevation, flow accumulation, distance from drainages, and distance from roads were calculated from the topographic maps. Lithology, distance from seismogenic fault, distance from all faults, and distance from stratigraphic boundaries were derived from the geological maps. Normalized difference vegetation index （NDV1） was extracted from ETM＋ images. Seismic intensity zoning was collected from Wenchuan （汶川） Ms8.0 Earthquake Intensity Distribution Map published by the China Earthquake Administration.Landslide hazard indices were calculated using the weight of evidence model, and landslide hazard maps were calculated from using different controlling parameters cases. The hazard map was compared with known landslide locations and verified. The success accuracy percentage of using all 13 controlling parameters was 71.82%. The resulting landslide hazard map showed five classes of landslide hazard, i.e., very high, high, moderate, low, and very low. The validation results showed satisfactory agreement between the hazard map and the existing landslides distribution data. The landslide hazard map can be used to identify and delineate unstable hazard-prone areas. It can also help planners to choose favorable locations for development schemes, such as infrastructural, buildings, road constructions, and environmental protection.
基金supported by the Key Project in the National Science and Technology Pillar Program during the Twelfth Five-Year Plan Period(Grant No.2012BAK10B04)the Specific Research Fund of the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research(Grant No.JZ0145B032014)
文摘Flash flood hazard mapping is a supporting component of non-structural measures for flash flood prevention. Pilot case studies are necessary to develop more practicable methods for the technical support systems of flash flood hazard mapping. In this study, the headwater catchment of the Xiapu River Basin in central China was selected as a pilot study area for flash flood hazard mapping. A conceptual distributed hydrological model was developed for flood calculation based on the framework of the Xinanjiang model, which is widely used in humid and semi-humid regions in China. The developed model employs the geomorphological unit hydrograph method, which is extremely valuable when simulating the overland flow process in ungauged catchments, as compared with the original Xinanjiang model. The model was tested in the pilot study area, and the results agree with the measured data on the whole. After calibration and validation, the model is shown to be a useful tool for flash flood calculation. A practicable method for flash flood hazard mapping using the calculated peak discharge and digital elevation model data was presented, and three levels of flood hazards were classified. The resulting flash flood hazard maps indicate that the method successfully predicts the spatial distribution of flash flood hazards, and it can meet the current requirements in China.
文摘This paper reports a method to make hazard maps of sediment disasters resulting from an earthquake and following heavy rainfall for the entire region of Gunma prefecture, Japan. Firstly, we identified the slopes in the study area, which are susceptible to large-scale landslides and land failures during an earthquake with a magnitude of seven on the Richter scale. To analyze the sheer volume of the data, we employed a statistical method to evaluate the susceptibility, mainly considering geomorphologic conditions. Secondly, we extracted mudflow and slope failure susceptible areas and potential flooding zones resulting from a damming at a river triggered by the earthquake and heavy rainfall, and we identified the settlements which would be isolated by the road disruption caused by the sediment disasters. As the result, 359 settlements were classified as potential isolation areas. Combining the above-mentioned susceptibility maps, we obtained two types of sediment disaster hazard maps of the study area, depicting the potential hazards which would occur during the earthquake and the disasters which would be caused by heavy rainfall following the quake, respectively. These hazard maps and the disaster information would be useful for the regional disaster prevention planning and countermeasures in the future.
文摘Flooding has been one of the recurring occurred natural disasters that induce detrimental impacts on humans, property and environment. Frequent floods is a severe issue and a complex natural phenomenon in Pakistan with respect to population affected, environmental degradations, and socio-economic and property damages. The Super Flood, which hit Sindh in 2010, has turned out to be a wakeup call and has underlined the overwhelming challenge of natural calamities, as 2010 flood and the preceding flood in 2011 caused a huge loss to life, property and land use. These floods resulted in disruption of power, telecommunication, and water utilities in many districts of Pakistan, including 22 districts of Sindh. These floods call for risk assessment and hazard mapping of Lower Indus Basin flowing in the Sindh Province as such areas were also inundated in 2010 flood, which were not flooded in the past in this manner. This primary focus of this paper is the use of Multi-criteria Evaluation (MCE) methods in integration with the Geographical Information System (GIS) for the analysis of areas prone to flood. This research demonstrated how GIS tools can be used to produce map of flood vulnerable areas using MCE techniques. Slope, Aspect, Curvature, Soil, and Distance from Drainage, Land use, Precipitation, Flow Direction, and Flow Accumulation are taken as the causative factors for flooding in Lower Indus Basin. Analytical Hierarchy Process-AHP was used for the calculation of weights of all these factors. Finally, a flood hazard Map of Lower Indus Basin was generated which delineates the flood prone areas in the Sindh province along Indus River Basin that could be inundated by potential flooding in future. It is aimed that flood hazard mapping and risk assessment using open source geographic information system can serve as a handy tool for the development of land-use strategies so as to decrease the impact from flooding.
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(Grant No.2023YFC3007203).
文摘This study addresses gaps in aftershock prediction research by proposing an interpretable hybrid machine learning model that leverages multi-source data.The model overcomes challenges related to the selection of influencing factors,model types,prediction result visualization,and decision mechanism interpretability.It integrates mainshock factors,geological features,site characteristics,and terrain conditions using geospatial information system(GIS)technology.By employing the stacking algorithm to optimize and combine XGBoost and LightGBM models,the proposed model significantly improves the prediction performance.Visualization through aftershock hazard mapping offers a robust tool for aftershock warning.The Shapley additive explanations(SHAP)model is used to explain the decision-making process from both global and local perspectives.Results show that,compared to the optimized XGBoost-CMA_ES and LightGBM-CMA_ES hybrid models,the stacking model achieves area under the curve(AUC)increases of 7.71%and 5.72% on the test set,respectively,with a maximum prediction accuracy of 0.9344.The hazard zoning map identifies high-risk areas mainly around fault lines and near the epicenter.As hazard levels rise,the proportion and density of aftershocks in these areas increase.The SHAP model results highlight the distance to fault as the most critical factor.The study integrates local explanations with on-site investigations,effectively visualizing the contributions of different factors to aftershocks.This research provides new tools and methods for enhancing aftershock warning and response.
基金Supported by the Special Project of Chinese Academy of sciences for Mountain Hazards: Debris Flow and Landslide and Oriented Project of Knowledge Innovation of Chinese Academy of sciences(KZCX2-SW-319)
文摘Through the field survey, previous researches and interpretation of aerial photos, a landslide information database of Xiaojiang Valley, Yunnan Province was set up based on the remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) technologies. In the paper, a quantitative model for the landslide hazard assessment and zoning was presented, in which the potential energy could be obtained on basis of thorough analysis of the potential sliding volume, distance and direction of the landslide body. Taking landslide potential energy as the index of the hazard severity zonation, the study area was divided into severe, heavy, medium and light hazard zones.
基金funded by the Kuwait Ministry of Finance for the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research(KISR)under project no.P-KISR-06-02 entitled Multi-Hazard Macro-Assessment Study and Strengthening Environmental Crisis Management in Kuwait.
文摘Hazard maps are essential tools to aid decision makers in land-use planning,sustainable infrastructure development,and emergency preparedness.Despite the availability of historical data,there has been no attempt to produce hazard maps for Kuwait.In cooperation with the World Bank,this study investigated the natural and anthropogenic hazards that affect Kuwait.The objective was to assess the hazards that face Kuwait and map the hazards of most concern.Hazard maps depicting the spatial distribution of hazard-prone areas are discussed in this article.Hazard assessment maps were generated using multiple datasets and techniques,including meteorological data,satellite imagery,and GIS.Hazard profiling identified a total of 25 hazards,of which five“priority”hazards were explored in detail:(1)surface water flooding;(2)dust storms and sand encroachment;(3)drought;(4)air pollution;and(5)oil spills.The results of this study can aid decision makers in targeting the hazards of most concern.The developed maps are valuable tools for emergency response and hazard mitigation.
基金University of PamplonaColombian School of Engineering Julio Garavito。
文摘The rapid growth of impervious areas in urban basins worldwide has increased the number of impermeable surfaces in cities,leading to severe flooding and significant economic losses for civilians.This trend highlights the urgent need for methodologies that assess flood hazards and specifically address the direct impact on pedestrians,which is often overlooked in traditional flood hazard analyses.This study aims to evaluate a methodology for assessing the risk to pedestrians from hydrodynamic forces during urban floods,with a specific focus on Cúcuta,Colombia.The methodology couples research outcomes from other studies on the impact of floodwaters on individuals of different ages and sizes with 1D/2D hydrological modeling.Advanced computational algorithms for image recognition were used to measure water levels at 5-s intervals on November 6,2020,using drones for digital elevation model data collection.In Cúcuta,where flood risk is high and drainage infrastructure is limited,the PCSWMM(Computer-based Urban Stormwater Management Model)was calibrated and validated to simulate extreme flood events.The model incorporated urban infrastructure details and geomorphological parameters of Cúcuta's urban basin.Four return periods(5,10,50,100),with extreme rainfall of 3 h,were used to estimate the variability of the risk map.The output of the model was analyzed,and an integrated and time-varying comparison of the results was done.Results show that the regions of high-water depth and high velocity could vary significantly along the duration of the different extreme events.Also,from 5 to 100 years return period,the percentage of area at risk increased from 9.6%to 16.6%.The pedestrian sensitivity appears much higher than the increase in velocities or water depth individually.This study identified medium to high-risk locations,which are dynamic in time.We can conclude dynamics are spatiotemporal,and the added information layer of pedestrians brings vulnerability information that is also dynamic.Areas of immediate concern in Cúcuta can enhance pedestrian safety during flash flood events.The spatiotemporal variation of patterns requires further studies to map trajectories and sequences that machine learning models could capture.
基金supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,CHD(Grant No.300102282103)Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi(Program No.2023-JC-QN-0512)(CF)+1 种基金the National Key R&D Program of China(Grant No.2023YFC3805202)(HPH)the Institute of Geophysics,China Earthquake Administration(WJX)is gratefully acknowledged.
文摘The fifth-generation seismic hazard map for China's mainland(CSHM5) was developed based on the delineated seismic source models and the ground motion models(GMMs) for the peak ground acceleration(PGA) for four different seismic regions. In the present study, we developed a new set of GMMs as functions of the rupture distance or the closest distance to the projection of the rupture plane. The development of the GMMs is based on the projection method and GMMs from the NGA-West2 project. We then estimated, mapped, and compared the seismic hazard in terms of PGA and pseudo-spectral acceleration by using the new set of GMMs and other relevant GMMs, and two seismic source models-one used in developing CSHM5, which includes the fault orientation characterization and the other based on a spatially smoothed source model. The comparison of the estimated seismic hazard indicates that CSHM5 may significantly underestimate the seismic hazard. Part of this is likely due to the inclusion of an additional 15 km focal depth in the original GMM that is adopted for CSHM5. The comparison of the obtained standardized uniform hazard spectra(UHS) to the standardized response spectrum implemented in the current structural design code shows that the value of the latter is greater than that of the former for the natural vibration period less than about 0.1 s or greater than 0.4 s and this is reversed for the natural vibration period around 0.2 s. It is recommended that the use of UHS for design code making should be seriously considered, or at least, the shape of the current implemented standardized design spectrum could be improved.
基金supported by the Mandatory Research Fund from the University of Bengkulu,with Grant No.3968/UN30.15/LT/2018
文摘It is well known that seismic hazard assessment should be implemented to design infrastructures in an earthquake-prone area such as Bengkulu.This paper presents local seismic hazard maps based on the response spectra of stiff and very dense soils in Bengkulu city,Indonesia.We collect the soil data and conduct the seismic wave propagation.The input motion for wave propagation analysis is generated from the spectral acceleration curves of stiff and dense soils.Various ground motion parameters such as peak ground acceleration,short-period and long-period spectral accelerations,and amplification factors are presented in microzonation maps.The results show that the peak ground acceleration in the study area ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 g,while the spectral acceleration varies between 0.5-1.5 g and 0.4-0.8 g for periods of 0.2 and 1 s,respectively.The amplification factor of the site is observed to vary from 0.5 to 1.6.Considering other spectral accelerations in Bengkulu,the spectral acceleration design shows a good performance.The results indicate the site characteristics of Bengkulu city,which can provide engineers with site class for structural building design.
文摘The Tohoku-Oki earthquake （Mw 9.0） of March 11,2011, was the largest event in the history of Japan. This magnitude 9.0 mega-thrust earthquake initiated approximately 100 km off-shore of Miyagi prefecture and the rupture extended 400-500 km along the Pacific plate. Due to the strong ground motions and tsunami associated by this event, approximately twenty thousand people were killed or missing and more than 220 thousands houses and buildings were totally or partially destroyed. This mega-thrust earthquake was not considered in the national seismic hazard maps for Japan that was published by the HERP （headquarters for earthquake research promotion） of Japan. By comparing the results of the seismic hazard assessment and observed strong ground motions, we understand that the results of assessment were underestimated in Fukushima prefecture and northern part of Ibaraki prefecture. Its cause primarily lies in that it failed to evaluate the Mw 9.0 mega-thrust earthquake in the long-term evaluation for seismic activities. On the other hand, another cause is that we could not make the functional framework which is prepared for treatment of uncertainty for probabilistic seismic hazard assessment work fully. Based on the lessons learned from this earthquake disaster and the experience that we have engaged in the seismic hazard mapping project of Japan, we consider problems and issues to be resolved for probabilistic seismic hazard assessment and make new proposals to improve probabilistic seismic hazard assessment for Japan.
基金unded by the National Natural Science Foundation Project(40972209)the Special Projects for China Earthquake Research(201208005)
文摘Tephra fallout is an important type of hazard caused by explosive volcanic eruption, and numerical simulation has become a fast and effective approach to assess the dispersion and deposition of tephra fallout. According to the improved 2D diffusion model of Suzuki （ 1983）, we edited a tephra diffusion program that can run in the Windows system. Based on previous data, we simulated the diffusion scope of the Jinlongdingzi volcanic eruption, which is the latest eruption in the Longgang volcanic cluster. The simulated results are in good agreement with the results from measurement in situ, indicating that the model is reliable and the parameters used in the model are suitable. By using wind profiles of ten years, 7, 021 simulations under different wind profiles were carried out, and then probabilistic hazard maps of tephra fallout were constructed for tephra thickness thresholds, lcm and 0.5cm. This study can provide an important scientific basis for volcanic hazard analysis, risk mitigation plans and countermeasures in the Longgang volcanic area.
基金financial support received from several agencies:the University of Western Ontario,the China Scholarship Council(No.201706260256,for Chao Sheng)the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada(RGPIN-2016-04814,for H.P.Hong),and the National Research Council(NRC)Canada.
文摘The ice accretion load in Canadian structural design codes is developed based on an operational ice accretion prediction model.In the present study,three models are employed to predict the ice accretion amount on a flat surface and horizontal wire at Canadian sites.The results confirm that the model used by Canadian practice for predicting ice accretion leads to a conservative estimate as compared to the remaining two models.The results also indicate that the use of the Gumbel distribution for the annual maximum ice accretion is adequate for regions prone to ice accretion and that the lognormal distribution may be considered for regions with a moderate or negligible amount of ice accretion.Maps of the ice accretion hazard at five selected Canadian sites are developed.Statistical analysis of an equivalent wind speed that is concurrent with the iced wire is carried out,showing that the concurrent wind speed for the 50-year return period value of the annual maximum ice accretion amount is smaller than the 50-year return period value of the annual maximum wind speed.It is shown that the statistical characteristics of the annual maximum concurrent wind speed on iced wire differ from that of the annual maximum wind speed.
文摘This paper presents a comparative visualization strategy of slope failure susceptibility maps for analyzing different types of simultaneous occurrences of slope failures. Through the SEM （structural equation modeling）, slope failure susceptibility maps are produced by using causal factors （i.e., geographical information, satellite remotely sensed data）. As for a conventional pair-wise comparative procedure, the differences between susceptibility maps are delineated on difference maps, that can be, however, applied for evaluating differences only between pairs of susceptibility maps. One of the strong requirements from specialists working on slope stability evaluation is a comparative and visualization strategy of susceptibility maps with respect to ＂different types of simultaneous slope failures＂, for which the discussion is insufficient in the previous research activities for constructing the quantitative models for slope failure hazard mapping. As a measure, a color composite map based on susceptibility maps has been produced. The combination of assigning susceptibility maps to RGB-color planes is determined based on an index of ＂NCCT （normalized correlated color temperature）＂ which represents the relationship between chromaticity and human visual perception. Through the cases examined, the result indicates that the proposed color composite map, as a heuristic visualization strategy, is useful for simultaneously evaluating the hazardous areas affected by ＂different types of slope failures＂.
基金supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education,Science and Technology (2012014940)supported by a grant(Code#’08 RTIP B01-01) from the Regional Technology Innovation Program (RTIP)funded by the Ministry of Land Transport and Maritime Affairs of the Korean government
文摘A large number of debris flows occurred simultaneously at around 8:30 to 8:50 a.m.on July 27,2011,at the center of Seoul,Korea.This area is located in the southern part of Seoul and is a densely populated district.As a result of the debris flow event,16 people were killed,30 houses were buried,and 116 houses were damaged around Umyeon Mountain,a relatively small mountain with a height of 312.6 m.Since the debris flow event,field investigations on the initiation and transportation zones of debris flows have been carried out.Rainfall data were collected from the automatic weather stations(AWSs) which are operated by the Korea Meteorological Administration(KMA).Video files recorded by residents were also acquired and used to analyze the flow characteristics of the debris flow.Field investigation shows that about 40 debris flows occurred around Umyeon Mountain and most of the debris flows were initiated by small slope failures.The effects of the precipitation that triggered the debris flows were analyzed as well.A landslide hazard map which considers slope gradient and aspect,strength of soil,hazard record,rainfall conditions,and vegetation,was constructed and compared with the initiation zones of debris flows.
基金Fund by the Ministry of Science and Technology, No.2002BA516A17 Foundation of Chinese Academy of Forestry Science, No.200114
文摘According to the principle of the eruption of debris flows, the new torrent classification techniques are brought forward. The torrent there can be divided into 4 types such as the debris flow torrent with high destructive strength, the debris flow torrent, high sand-carrying capacity flush flood torrent and common flush flood by the techniques. In this paper, the classification indices system and the quantitative rating methods are presented. Based on torrent classification, debris flow torrent hazard zone mapping techniques by which the debris flow disaster early-warning object can be ascertained accurately are identified. The key techniques of building the debris flow disaster neural network (NN) real time forecasting model are given detailed explanations in this paper, including the determination of neural node at the input layer, the output layer and the implicit layer, the construction of knowledge source and the initial weight value and so on. With this technique, the debris flow disaster real-time forecasting neural network model is built according to the rainfall features of the historical debris flow disasters, which includes multiple rain factors such as rainfall of the disaster day, the rainfall of 15 days before the disaster day, the maximal rate of rainfall in one hour and ten minutes. It can forecast the probability, critical rainfall of eruption of the debris flows, through the real-time rainfall monitoring or weather forecasting. Based on the torrent classification and hazard zone mapping, combined with rainfall monitoring in the rainy season and real-time forecasting models, the debris flow disaster early-warning system is built. In this system, the GIS technique, the advanced international software and hardware are applied, which makes the system’s performance steady with good expansibility. The system is a visual information system that serves management and decision-making, which can facilitate timely inspect of the variation of the torrent type and hazardous zone, the torrent management, the early-warning of disasters and the disaster reduction and prevention.
基金The support of the Fundamental Research Funds from the Central Universities,CHD(Grant No.300102282103)Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi(Program No.2023-JC-QN-0512)Harbin Institute of Technology(Shenzhen)。
文摘The estimated seismic hazard based on the delineated seismic source model is used as the basis to assign the seismic design loads in Canadian structural design codes.An alternative for the estimation is based on a spatially smoothed source model.However,a quantification of differences in the Canadian seismic hazard maps(CanSHMs)obtained based on the delineated seismic source model and spatially smoothed model is unavailable.The quantification is valuable to identify epistemic uncertainty in the estimated seismic hazard and the degree of uncertainty in the CanSHMs.In the present study,we developed seismic source models using spatial smoothing and historical earthquake catalogue.We quantified the differences in the estimated Canadian seismic hazard by considering the delineated source model and spatially smoothed source models.For the development of the spatially smoothed seismic source models,we considered spatial kernel smoothing techniques with or without adaptive bandwidth.The results indicate that the use of the delineated seismic source model could lead to under or over-estimation of the seismic hazard as compared to those estimated based on spatially smoothed seismic source models.This suggests that an epistemic uncertainty caused by the seismic source models should be considered to map the seismic hazard.
文摘The Japanese government has established a law to Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995. This paper evaluates the incentives of the policies related to the law. The data shows achieved in 2018 if the current trends of improvement will supports the school retrofit works that are carried out by the promote seismic retrofitting of buildings immediately after the Great effectiveness, efficiency, administrative feasibility and technological that the policy target of seismic safety of existing buildings will be be continued. In the field of school buildings, national government local governments, using the guideline for school retrofit. However, there are still significant issues to make all buildings safe. One of the key challenges is how to persuade the elderly who would not invest their money to improve their old houses. Another challenge is to make owners understand the importance and have priority in improving the seismic safety of buildings. Currently many efforts are taken by the local governments, such as holding seminars for local communities, preparing financial support schemes, providing consultancy for seismic assessment and making earthquake hazard maps. This paper also provides comments on the improvement of the current policies for promoting seismic retrofit based on some international experiences in retrofit of buildings.
基金Financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant Nos.51808169 and 51927813)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(Grant No.HIT.NSRIF.2020083)are gratefully acknowledged.
文摘Extreme snow loads can collapse roofs.This load is calculated based on the ground snow load(that is,the snow water equivalent on the ground).However,snow water equivalent(SWE) measurements are unavailable for most sites,while the ground snow depth is frequently measured and recorded.A new simple practical algorithm was proposed in this study to evaluate the SWE by utilizing ground snow depth,precipitation data,wind speed,and air temperature.For the evaluation,the precipitation was clas sified as snowfall or rainfall according to the air temperature,the snowfall or rainfall was then corrected for measurement error that is mainly caused by wind-induced undercatch,and the effect of snow water loss was considered.The developed algorithm was applied and validated using data from57 meteorological stations located in the northeastern region of China.The annual maximum SWE obtained based on the proposed algorithm was compared with that obtained from the actual SWE measurements.The return period values of the annual maximum ground snow load were estimated and compared to those obtained according to the procedure suggested by the Chinese structural design code.The comparison indicated that the use of the proposed algorithm leads to a good estimated SWE or ground snow load.Its use allowed the estimation of the ground snow load for sites without SWE measurement and facilitated snow hazard mapping.
