An accurate assessment of host and pathogen gene expression during infection is critical for understanding the molecular aspects of host-pathogen interactions.Often,pathogen-derived transcripts are difficult to ascert...An accurate assessment of host and pathogen gene expression during infection is critical for understanding the molecular aspects of host-pathogen interactions.Often,pathogen-derived transcripts are difficult to ascertain at early infection stages owing to the unfavourable transcript representation compared to the host genes.In this study,we compare two sequencing techniques,RNAseq and enrichment sequencing(RenSeq and PenSeq)of cDNA,to investigate gene expression patterns in the doubled monoploid potato(DM)infected with the late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans.Our results reveal distinct advantages of cDNA RenSeq and PenSeq over traditional RNAseq in terms of target gene representation and transcriptional quantification at early infection stages.Throughout the infection time course,cDNA enrichment sequencing enables transcriptomic analyses for more targeted host and pathogen genes.For highly expressed genes that were sampled in parallel by both cDNA enrichment and RNAseq,a high level of concordance in expression profiles is observed,indicative of at least semi-quantitative gene expression representation following enrichment.展开更多
Inorganic phosphate(Pi)homeostasis in plants is regulated by inositol pyrophosphates(PP-InsPs),which mediate phosphate starvation responses.While beneficial microorganisms,such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,contribu...Inorganic phosphate(Pi)homeostasis in plants is regulated by inositol pyrophosphates(PP-InsPs),which mediate phosphate starvation responses.While beneficial microorganisms,such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,contribute to phosphate uptake,pathogenic fungi often exploit phosphate metabolism to enhance virulence.However,the exact mechanisms by which pathogens manipulate plant phosphate signaling remain largely unknown.Here,we highlight a recent study by Ulrich Schaffrath and colleagues(Science,2025)revealing that plant pathogenic fungi deploy conserved Nudix hydrolase effectors to hydrolyze PP-InsPs,thereby mimicking phosphate starvation and suppressing host immunity.These findings not only expand our understanding of plantpathogen interactions,but also open new avenues for crop protection and resistance breeding.展开更多
The sugar beet cyst nematode(Heterodera schachtii) is one of the most destructive pathogens in sugar beet production, which causes serious economic losses every year. Few molecular details of effectors of H. schachtii...The sugar beet cyst nematode(Heterodera schachtii) is one of the most destructive pathogens in sugar beet production, which causes serious economic losses every year. Few molecular details of effectors of H. schachtii parasitism are known. We analyzed the genome and transcriptome data of H. schachtii and identified multiple potential predicted proteins. After filtering out predicted proteins with high homology to other plant-parasitic nematodes, we performed functional validation of the remaining effector proteins. 37 putative effectors of H. schachtii were screened based on the Nicotiana benthamiana system for identifying the effectors that inhibit plant immune response, eventually determines 13 candidate effectors could inhibit cell death caused by Bax. Among the 13 effectors, nine have the ability to inhibit GPA2/RBP1-induced cell death. All 13 effectortriggered immunity(ETI) suppressor genes were analyzed by qRT-PCR and confirmed to result in a significant downregulation of one or more defense genes during infection compared to empty vector. For in situ hybridization,13 effectors were specifically expressed and located in esophageal gland cells. These data and functional analysis set the stage for further studies on the interaction of H. schachtii with host and H. schachtii parasitic control.展开更多
The innate immune system is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Innate immune cells recognize molecular patterns from the pathogen and mount a response to resolve the infection. The production of pro...The innate immune system is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Innate immune cells recognize molecular patterns from the pathogen and mount a response to resolve the infection. The production of proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species, phagocytosis, and induced programmed cell death are processes initiated by innate immune cells in order to combat invading pathogens. However, pathogens have evolved various virulence mechanisms to subvert these responses. One strategy utilized by Gram-negative bacterial pathogens is the deployment of a complex machine termed the type Ⅲ secretion system(T3SS). The T3SS is composed of a syringe-like needle structure and the effector proteins that are injected directly into a target host cell to disrupt a cellular response. The three human pathogenic Yersinia spp.(Y. pestis, Y. enterocolitica, and Y. pseudotuberculosis) are Gramnegative bacteria that share in common a 70 kb virulence plasmid which encodes the T3 SS. Translocation of the Yersinia effector proteins(YopE, YopH, YopT, YopM, YpkA/YopO, and YopP/J) into the target host cell results in disruption of the actin cytoskeleton to inhibit phagocytosis, downregulation of proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine production, and induction of cellular apoptosis of the target cell. Over the past 25 years, studies on the Yersinia effector proteins have unveiled tremendous knowledge of how the effectors enhance Yersinia virulence. Recently, the long awaited crystal structure of YpkA has been solved providing further insights into the activation of the YpkA kinase domain. Multisite autophosphorylation by YpkA to activate its kinase domain was also shown and postulated to serve as a mechanism to bypass regulation by host phosphatases. In addition, novel Yersinia effector protein targets, such as caspase-1, and signaling pathways including activation of the inflammasome were identified. In this review, we summarize the recent discoveries made on Yersinia effector proteins and their contribution to Yersinia pathogenesis.展开更多
Ralstonia solanacearum is a widespread plant bacterial pathogen that can launch a range of type Ⅲ effectors(T3Es)to cause disease.In this study,we isolate a pathogenic R.solanacearum strain named P380 from tomato rhi...Ralstonia solanacearum is a widespread plant bacterial pathogen that can launch a range of type Ⅲ effectors(T3Es)to cause disease.In this study,we isolate a pathogenic R.solanacearum strain named P380 from tomato rhizosphere.Five out of 12 core T3Es of strain P380 are introduced into Pseudomonas syringae DC3000D36E separately to determine their functions in interacting with plants.DC3000D36E that harbors each effector suppresses FliC-triggered Pti5 and ACRE31 expression,ROS burst,and callose deposition.RipAE,RipU,and RipW elicit cell death as well as upregulate the MAPK cascades in Nicotiana benthamiana.The derivatives RipC1^(△DDXDX(T/V))and RipW^(△DDKXXQ)but not RipAE^(K310R) fail to suppress ROS burst.Moreover,RipAE^(K310R) and RipW^(△DDKXXQ) retain the cell death elicitation ability.RipAE and RipW are associated with salicylic acid and jasmonic acid pathways,respectively.RipAE and RipAQ significantly promote the propagation of DC3000D36E in plants.The five core T3Es localize in diverse subcellular organelles of nucleus,plasma membrane,endoplasmic reticulum,and Golgi network.The suppressor of G2 allele of Skp1 is required for RipAE but not RipU-triggered cell death in N.benthamiana.These results indicate that the core T3Es in R.solanacearum play diverse roles in plantpathogen interactions.展开更多
Huanglongbing (HLB) or citrus greening is currently the most important citrus disease, caused by the bacterium </span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Candidatus</span></i>...Huanglongbing (HLB) or citrus greening is currently the most important citrus disease, caused by the bacterium </span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Candidatus</span></i><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> Liberibacter asiaticus (</span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">C</span></i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Las). The impossibility of isolating it causes understanding its pathogenic mechanisms to be a complicated task. Recent studies identified 16 proteins with the signal peptide needed to be secreted in the plant and cause the disease. The present study aims to perform a bioinformatic analysis of these proteins with the function prediction approach by gene ontology (GO) and the detection of conserved domains. It was observed that of the 16 proteins analyzed not all are found in different infective strains reported in the literature. The GO analysis allowed us to relate different proteins with the biological process of energy and pathogenic activity, especially CLIBASIA_03315 and CLIBASIA_05115, respectively. The domain analysis allowed the observation of a </span></span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">β</span></i><span style="font-family:""><span style="font-family:Verdana;">-CA domain, tentatively related to the damage caused to the chloroplast and a PAAR domain associated with the T6SS secretory system. Our results provide information on the possible function of potential pathogenicity effectors in </span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">C</span></i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Las.展开更多
Extracellular vesicles(EVs)facilitate cross-kingdom communication by delivering bioactive molecules between cells.Although the role of fungal EVs in cross-kingdom RNA trafficking is well documented,whether and how the...Extracellular vesicles(EVs)facilitate cross-kingdom communication by delivering bioactive molecules between cells.Although the role of fungal EVs in cross-kingdom RNA trafficking is well documented,whether and how they deliver pathogen-derived virulence effectors into host plants to facilitate infection remains largely unknown.Here,we report that the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani secretes vesicles enriched with the EV marker R.solani tetraspanin 2(RsTsp2)and the effectors R.solani necrosis-promoting protein 8(RsNP8)and R.solani serine protease(RsSerp).These proteins are upregulated during infection and are critical for fungal virulence.Notably,clathrin-coated vesicles accumulate at the fungal infection sites,and RsTsp2,RsSerp,and RsNP8 are detectable within these vesicles,indicating their entry into plant cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis.RsNP8 is translocated into the chloroplast,where it interacts with NP8-interacting chloroplast protein 1(NICP1)in Arabidopsis.NICP1 contributes to plant immunity by regulating the reactive oxygen species burst during infection,whereas RsNP8 suppresses this immune response.Silencing of RsTsp2,RsSerp,and RsNP8 in R.solani attenuates sheath blight disease progression in rice.Taken together,these findings demonstrate that fungal EVs enable cross-kingdom delivery of effectors into plant cells,revealing a previously unrecognized mechanism by which eukaryotic pathogens invade host plants.展开更多
Plants encounter numerous microorganisms in the environment.However,only a few microbes are pathogenic to a plant species.To colonize plants,pathogens should be able to bypass or suppress multiple layers of the plant ...Plants encounter numerous microorganisms in the environment.However,only a few microbes are pathogenic to a plant species.To colonize plants,pathogens should be able to bypass or suppress multiple layers of the plant defense system,composed of pre-formed physico-chemical barriers and post-invasive immune systems.Thus,each plant pathogenic microorganism has its own host range,depending on the direction in which it is specialized or adapted.But,simultaneously,this specialization results in a lack of adaptation to most other plants,which have different immune components compared to the host plant species of a given pathogen.展开更多
Plant diseases cause dramatic economic loss,posing a major challenge to modern agriculture.Plant pathogenic organisms secret effectors that utilize fascinating and intricate stratagems to facilitate infection.The cons...Plant diseases cause dramatic economic loss,posing a major challenge to modern agriculture.Plant pathogenic organisms secret effectors that utilize fascinating and intricate stratagems to facilitate infection.The consequences of plant-pathogen interactions are largely determined by effectors.The effector research has made great strides since its inception in the 1990s and the importance of effectors is increasingly noticed.Molecular investigation of effectors has provided critical insights into how plant pathogens manipulate their hosts to cause diseases.Thus far,numerous excellent reviews concerning effectors have focused on their targeting host pathways,recognition by host receptors,and evasion mechanisms,but few have ever summarized all known effector action modes.Here,we distinguish ten different stratagems of effector function from all types of pathogens,including damage,inhibition,hijacking,promotion,subversion,mimicry,reprogramming,evasion,decoying,and adaption.Furthermore,we discuss examples of these ten stratagems,refine the effector definition,and propose future directions of phytopathogenic effector research.展开更多
Plasma membrane intrinsic proteins(PIPs),a subclass of aquaporins,play an important role in plant immunity by acting as H2O2 transporters.Their homeostasis is mostly maintained by C-terminal serine phosphorylation.How...Plasma membrane intrinsic proteins(PIPs),a subclass of aquaporins,play an important role in plant immunity by acting as H2O2 transporters.Their homeostasis is mostly maintained by C-terminal serine phosphorylation.However,the kinases that phosphorylate PIPs and manipulate their turnover are largely unknown.Here,we found that Arabidopsis thaliana PIP2;7 positively regulates plant immunity by transporting H_(2)O_(2).Arabidopsis CALCIUM-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE 28(CPK28)directly interacts with and phosphorylates PIP2;7 at Ser273/276 to induce its degradation.During pathogen infection,CPK28 dissociates from PIP2;7 and destabilizes,leading to PIP2;7 accumulation.As a countermeasure,oomycete pathogens produce conserved kinase effectors that stably bind to and mediate the phosphorylation of PIP2;7 to induce its degradation.Our study identifies PIP2;7 as a novel substrate of CPK28 and shows that its protein stability is negatively regulated by CPK28.Such phosphorylation could be mimicked by Phytophthora kinase effectors to promote infection.Accordingly,we developed a strategy to combat oomycete infection using a phosphorylation-resistant PIP2;7S273/276A mutant.The strategy only allows accumulation of PIP2;7^(S273/276A) during infection to limit potential side effects on normal plant growth.展开更多
Plants possess remarkably durable resistance against non-adapted pathogens in nature.However,the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood,and it is unclear how the resistance is maintained without coev...Plants possess remarkably durable resistance against non-adapted pathogens in nature.However,the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood,and it is unclear how the resistance is maintained without coevolution between hosts and non-adapted pathogens.In this study,we used Phytophthora sojae(Ps),a non-adapted pathogen of Nicotiana benthamiana(Nb),as a model and identified an RXLR effector that determines Nb incompatibility to Ps.Knockout of this RXLR effector in Ps enables successful infection of Nb,leading us to name it AvrNb(Avirulence gene in Nb).A systematic screening of Nb NLR genes further revealed that NbPrf,previously reported to be a receptor of bacterial avirulence proteins,is the NLR protein responsible for mediating AvrNb recognition and initiating the hypersensitive response(HR).Mutation in NbPrf makes Nb completely compatible to Ps.We found that AvrNb is structurally conserved among multiple Phytophthora pathogens,and its homologs also induce NbPrf-dependent HR.Remarkably,further inoculation assay showed that NbPrf is also involved in plant immunity to two adapted Phytophthora pathogens,Phytophthora infestans and Phytophthora capsici.Our findings suggest that NbPrf represents a promising resource for breeding resistance to Phytophthora pathogens and implicate that the conserved effectors present in both adapted and non-adapted pathogens may provide sufficient selective pressure to maintain the remarkably durable incompatibility between plants and non-adapted pathogens.展开更多
Transcription activator-like effectors(TALEs) mimic eukaryotic transcriptional activators and translocate into host plant cells via the bacterial type Ⅲ secretion system(T3SS) during pathogenic interactions. They pla...Transcription activator-like effectors(TALEs) mimic eukaryotic transcriptional activators and translocate into host plant cells via the bacterial type Ⅲ secretion system(T3SS) during pathogenic interactions. They play a crucial role in disease development by regulating host genes. Despite this, the regulatory mechanisms by which TALEs control OsWRKY transcription factors(TFs) remain poorly understood. In this study, we show that two TALEs from Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae(Xoo) individually modulate two OsWRKY TFs, resulting in increased susceptibility and reduced host defense.Specifically, Xoo1219 and Xoo2145 activate the expression of OsWRKY104 and OsWRKY55, respectively, through direct interactions. OsWRKY104 increases the susceptibility to Xoo by activating OsSWEET11 and OsSWEET14, while OsWRKY55suppresses host defense against Xoo by directly regulating OsWRKY62. These findings suggest that TALEs hijack the host's OsWRKY TFs to create a favorable environment for bacterial survival.展开更多
RXLR effectors are pathogenic factors secreted from oomycetes to manipulate the immunity of the host.Typical RXLR effectors contain an RXLR-dEER motif at the N-terminus,whereas atypical RXLRs show variations on this m...RXLR effectors are pathogenic factors secreted from oomycetes to manipulate the immunity of the host.Typical RXLR effectors contain an RXLR-dEER motif at the N-terminus,whereas atypical RXLRs show variations on this motif.The oomycete Phytophthora cactorum is known to infect over 200 plant species,resulting in significant agricultural economic losses.Although genome-wide identification and functional analyses of typical RXLRs from P.cactorum have been performed,little is known of atypical PcaRXLRs.Here,we identified RXLRs,both typical and atypical,in P.cactorum and compared them with those of other oomycete pathogens.Fewer RXLRs were identified in P.cactorum compared with other Phytophthora species,possibly due to fewer duplication events of RXLRs.In contrast,the percentage of atypical RXLRs was higher in P.cactorum than in other species,suggesting significant roles in P.cactorum pathogenesis.Analysis of RXLR gene expression showed that most were transcribed,suggesting their functionality.Transient expression of two atypical RXLRs in Nicotiana benthamiana showed that they induced necrosis dependent on host SGT1 and HSP90.Furthermore,two additional atypical RXLRs suppressed the defense response in N.benthamiana and promoted P.cactorum infection.These results demonstrate the vital role of atypical RXLRs in P.cactorum and provide valuable information on their evolutionary patterns and interactions with host plants.展开更多
Phytopathogenic fungi secrete a large arsenal of effector molecules,including proteinaceous effectors,small RNAs,phytohormones and derivatives thereof.The pathogenicity of fungal pathogens is primarily determined by t...Phytopathogenic fungi secrete a large arsenal of effector molecules,including proteinaceous effectors,small RNAs,phytohormones and derivatives thereof.The pathogenicity of fungal pathogens is primarily determined by these effectors that are secreted into host cells to undermine innate immunity,as well as to facilitate the acquisition of nutrients for their in planta growth and proliferation.After conventional and non-conventional secretion,fungal effectors are translocated into different subcellular compartments of the host cells to interfere with various biological processes.In extracellular spaces,apoplastic effectors cope with physical and chemical barriers to break the first line of plant defenses.Intracellular effectors target essential immune components on the plasma membrane,in the cytosol,including cytosolic organelles,and in the nucleus to suppress host immunity and reprogram host physiology,favoring pathogen colonization.In this review,we comprehensively summarize the recent advances in fungal effector biology,with a focus on the versatile virulence functions of fungal effectors in promoting pathogen infection and colonization.A perspective of future research on fungal effector biology is also discussed.展开更多
Soybean rust(SBR),caused by an obligate biotrophic pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi,is a devastating disease of soybean worldwide.However,the mechanisms underlying plant invasion by P.pachyrhizi are poorly understood,wh...Soybean rust(SBR),caused by an obligate biotrophic pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi,is a devastating disease of soybean worldwide.However,the mechanisms underlying plant invasion by P.pachyrhizi are poorly understood,which hinders the development of effective control strategies for SBR.Here we performed detailed histological characterization on the infection cycle of P.pachyrhizi in soybean and conducted a high-resolution transcriptional dissection of P.pachyrhizi during infection.This revealed P.pachyrhizi infection leads to significant changes in gene expression with 10 co-expressed gene modules,representing dramatic transcriptional shifts in metabolism and signal transduction during different stages throughout the infection cycle.Numerous genes encoding secreted protein are biphasic expressed,and are capable of inhibiting programmed cell death triggered by microbial effectors.Notably,three co-expressed P.pachyrhizi apoplastic effectors(PpAE1,PpAE2,and PpAE3) were found to suppress plant immune responses and were essential for P.pachyrhizi infection.Double-stranded RNA coupled with nanomaterials significantly inhibited SBR infection by targeting PpAE1,PpAE2,and PpAE3,and provided long-lasting protection to soybean against P.pachyrhizi.Together,this study revealed prominent changes in gene expression associated with SBR and identified P.pachyrhizi virulence effectors as promising targets of RNA interference-based soybean protection strategy against SBR.展开更多
The NAC(NAM,ATAF1/2,and CUC2)is a defense-associated transcription factor(TF)family that positively regulates defense responses to pathogen infection.TaNAC069 positively regulates resistance in wheat to Puccinia triti...The NAC(NAM,ATAF1/2,and CUC2)is a defense-associated transcription factor(TF)family that positively regulates defense responses to pathogen infection.TaNAC069 positively regulates resistance in wheat to Puccinia triticina(Pt).However,the molecular mechanism of its interaction with a Pt effector is not clear.We found that Pt effector Pt-1234 interacts with TaNAC069 to subvert host immunity during Pt infection.Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that expression of Pt-1234 was significantly upregulated during the early stage of Pt infection.Protein-mediated cell death assays in wheat showed that the Pt-1234 protein was unable to induce cell death in wheat near-isogenic lines carrying different leaf rust resistance genes,whereas it suppressed BAX-induced cell death in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana.Silencing of Pt-1234 by host-induced gene silencing(HIGS)significantly reduced the virulence of Pt in the susceptible wheat variety Thatcher.The C subdomain of TaNAC069 was responsible for its interaction with Pt-1234,and the E subdomain was required for TaNAC069-mediated defense responses to Pt in planta.These findings indicate that Pt utilizes Pt-1234 to interact with wheat transcription factor TaNAC069 through its C subdomain,thereby modulating wheat immunity.展开更多
Alternative splicing(AS)of pre-mRNAs increases transcriptome and proteome diversity,regulates gene expression through multiple mechanisms,and plays important roles in plant development and stress responses.However,the...Alternative splicing(AS)of pre-mRNAs increases transcriptome and proteome diversity,regulates gene expression through multiple mechanisms,and plays important roles in plant development and stress responses.However,the prevalence of genome-wide plant AS changes during infection and the mechanisms by which pathogens modulate AS remain poorly understood.Here,we examined the global AS changes in tomato leaves infected with Phytophthora infestans,the infamous Irish famine pathogen.We show that more than 2000 genes exhibiting significant changes in AS are not differentially expressed,indicating that AS is a distinct layer of transcriptome reprogramming during plant-pathogen interactions.Furthermore,our results show that P.infestans subverts host immunity by repressing the AS of positive regulators of plant immunity and promoting the AS of susceptibility factors.To study the underlying mechanism,we established a luminescence-based AS reporter system in Nicotiana benthamiana to screen pathogen effectors modulating plant AS.We identified nine splicing regulatory effectors(SREs)from 87 P.infestans effectors.Further studies revealed that SRE3 physically binds U1-70K to manipulate the plant AS machinery and subsequently modulates AS-mediated plant immunity.Our study not only unveils genome-wide plant AS reprogramming during infection but also establishes a novel AS screening tool to identify SREs from a wide range of plant pathogens,providing opportunities to understand the splicing regulatory mechanisms through which pathogens subvert plant immunity.展开更多
Hemipteran and dipteran insects have behavioral,cellular and chemical strategies for evading or coping with the host plant defenses making these insects particularly destructive pests worldwide. A critical component o...Hemipteran and dipteran insects have behavioral,cellular and chemical strategies for evading or coping with the host plant defenses making these insects particularly destructive pests worldwide. A critical component of a host plant＇s defense to herbivory is innate immunity. Here we review the status of our understanding of the receptors that contribute to perception of hemipteran and dipteran pests and highlight the gaps in our knowledge in these early events in immune signaling. We also highlight recent advances in identification of the effectors that activate pattern-triggered immunity and those involved in effector-triggered immunity.展开更多
For an advanced aircraft, the amount of its effectors is much more than that for a traditional one, the functions of effectors are more complex and the coupling between each other is more severe. Based on the current ...For an advanced aircraft, the amount of its effectors is much more than that for a traditional one, the functions of effectors are more complex and the coupling between each other is more severe. Based on the current control allocation research, this paper puts forward the concept and framework of the control allocation and management system for aircrafts with redundancy con-trol effectors. A new optimal control allocation method, bases sequenced optimal (BSO) method, is then presented. By analyz-ing the physical meaning of the allocation process of BSO method, four types of management strategies are adopted by the system, which act on the control allocation process under different flight conditions, mission requirements and effectors work-ing conditions. Simulation results show that functions of the control allocation system are extended and the system adaptability to flight status, mission requirements and effector failure conditions is improved.展开更多
The ability to secrete effector proteins that can enter plant cells and manipulate host processes is a key determinant of what makes a successful plant pathogen.Here,we review intracellular effectors from filamentous(...The ability to secrete effector proteins that can enter plant cells and manipulate host processes is a key determinant of what makes a successful plant pathogen.Here,we review intracellular effectors from filamentous(fungal and oomycete)phytopathogens and the host proteins and processes that are targeted to promote disease.We cover contrasting virulence strategies and effector modes of action.Filamentous pathogen effectors alter the fates of host proteins that they target,changing their stability,their activity,their location,and the protein partners with which they interact.Some effectors inhibit target activity,whereas others enhance or utilize it,and some target multiple host proteins.We discuss the emerging topic of effectors that target negative regulators of immunity or other plant proteins with activities that support susceptibility.We also highlight the commonly targeted host proteins that are manipulated by effectors from multiple pathogens,including those representing different kingdoms of life.展开更多
基金supported by the Rural & Environment Science & Analytical Services (RESAS) Division of the Scottish Government through project JHI-B1-1the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) through awards BB/ S015663/1+2 种基金BB/X009068/1Research Leaders 2025 fellowship funded by European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 754380the Research/Scientific Computing teams at The James Hutton Institute and NIAB for providing computational resources and technical support for the “UK’s Crop Diversity Bioinformatics HPC” (BBSRC grant BB/ S019669/1)。
文摘An accurate assessment of host and pathogen gene expression during infection is critical for understanding the molecular aspects of host-pathogen interactions.Often,pathogen-derived transcripts are difficult to ascertain at early infection stages owing to the unfavourable transcript representation compared to the host genes.In this study,we compare two sequencing techniques,RNAseq and enrichment sequencing(RenSeq and PenSeq)of cDNA,to investigate gene expression patterns in the doubled monoploid potato(DM)infected with the late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans.Our results reveal distinct advantages of cDNA RenSeq and PenSeq over traditional RNAseq in terms of target gene representation and transcriptional quantification at early infection stages.Throughout the infection time course,cDNA enrichment sequencing enables transcriptomic analyses for more targeted host and pathogen genes.For highly expressed genes that were sampled in parallel by both cDNA enrichment and RNAseq,a high level of concordance in expression profiles is observed,indicative of at least semi-quantitative gene expression representation following enrichment.
基金the financial support from China Youth Science Foundation(22207037).
文摘Inorganic phosphate(Pi)homeostasis in plants is regulated by inositol pyrophosphates(PP-InsPs),which mediate phosphate starvation responses.While beneficial microorganisms,such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,contribute to phosphate uptake,pathogenic fungi often exploit phosphate metabolism to enhance virulence.However,the exact mechanisms by which pathogens manipulate plant phosphate signaling remain largely unknown.Here,we highlight a recent study by Ulrich Schaffrath and colleagues(Science,2025)revealing that plant pathogenic fungi deploy conserved Nudix hydrolase effectors to hydrolyze PP-InsPs,thereby mimicking phosphate starvation and suppressing host immunity.These findings not only expand our understanding of plantpathogen interactions,but also open new avenues for crop protection and resistance breeding.
基金supported by the Open Fund of the Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crop in Northwestern Oasis,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairsof China(KFJJ202101)the National KeyR&D Program of China(2021YFD1400100)+1 种基金the National Natural Science Foundation of China(31972247)the Tianchi Talent Introduction Program in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region,China and the Science and Technology Innovation Project of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
文摘The sugar beet cyst nematode(Heterodera schachtii) is one of the most destructive pathogens in sugar beet production, which causes serious economic losses every year. Few molecular details of effectors of H. schachtii parasitism are known. We analyzed the genome and transcriptome data of H. schachtii and identified multiple potential predicted proteins. After filtering out predicted proteins with high homology to other plant-parasitic nematodes, we performed functional validation of the remaining effector proteins. 37 putative effectors of H. schachtii were screened based on the Nicotiana benthamiana system for identifying the effectors that inhibit plant immune response, eventually determines 13 candidate effectors could inhibit cell death caused by Bax. Among the 13 effectors, nine have the ability to inhibit GPA2/RBP1-induced cell death. All 13 effectortriggered immunity(ETI) suppressor genes were analyzed by qRT-PCR and confirmed to result in a significant downregulation of one or more defense genes during infection compared to empty vector. For in situ hybridization,13 effectors were specifically expressed and located in esophageal gland cells. These data and functional analysis set the stage for further studies on the interaction of H. schachtii with host and H. schachtii parasitic control.
基金Supported by the ASM Robert D Watkins Graduate FellowshipUC Davis Hellman Fellowship
文摘The innate immune system is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Innate immune cells recognize molecular patterns from the pathogen and mount a response to resolve the infection. The production of proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species, phagocytosis, and induced programmed cell death are processes initiated by innate immune cells in order to combat invading pathogens. However, pathogens have evolved various virulence mechanisms to subvert these responses. One strategy utilized by Gram-negative bacterial pathogens is the deployment of a complex machine termed the type Ⅲ secretion system(T3SS). The T3SS is composed of a syringe-like needle structure and the effector proteins that are injected directly into a target host cell to disrupt a cellular response. The three human pathogenic Yersinia spp.(Y. pestis, Y. enterocolitica, and Y. pseudotuberculosis) are Gramnegative bacteria that share in common a 70 kb virulence plasmid which encodes the T3 SS. Translocation of the Yersinia effector proteins(YopE, YopH, YopT, YopM, YpkA/YopO, and YopP/J) into the target host cell results in disruption of the actin cytoskeleton to inhibit phagocytosis, downregulation of proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine production, and induction of cellular apoptosis of the target cell. Over the past 25 years, studies on the Yersinia effector proteins have unveiled tremendous knowledge of how the effectors enhance Yersinia virulence. Recently, the long awaited crystal structure of YpkA has been solved providing further insights into the activation of the YpkA kinase domain. Multisite autophosphorylation by YpkA to activate its kinase domain was also shown and postulated to serve as a mechanism to bypass regulation by host phosphatases. In addition, novel Yersinia effector protein targets, such as caspase-1, and signaling pathways including activation of the inflammasome were identified. In this review, we summarize the recent discoveries made on Yersinia effector proteins and their contribution to Yersinia pathogenesis.
基金supported by the National Key R&D Program of China(2019YFD1002000)the Science and Technology Programs of the Shandong Tobacco(KN273)Zunyi Tobacco(2021XM03).
文摘Ralstonia solanacearum is a widespread plant bacterial pathogen that can launch a range of type Ⅲ effectors(T3Es)to cause disease.In this study,we isolate a pathogenic R.solanacearum strain named P380 from tomato rhizosphere.Five out of 12 core T3Es of strain P380 are introduced into Pseudomonas syringae DC3000D36E separately to determine their functions in interacting with plants.DC3000D36E that harbors each effector suppresses FliC-triggered Pti5 and ACRE31 expression,ROS burst,and callose deposition.RipAE,RipU,and RipW elicit cell death as well as upregulate the MAPK cascades in Nicotiana benthamiana.The derivatives RipC1^(△DDXDX(T/V))and RipW^(△DDKXXQ)but not RipAE^(K310R) fail to suppress ROS burst.Moreover,RipAE^(K310R) and RipW^(△DDKXXQ) retain the cell death elicitation ability.RipAE and RipW are associated with salicylic acid and jasmonic acid pathways,respectively.RipAE and RipAQ significantly promote the propagation of DC3000D36E in plants.The five core T3Es localize in diverse subcellular organelles of nucleus,plasma membrane,endoplasmic reticulum,and Golgi network.The suppressor of G2 allele of Skp1 is required for RipAE but not RipU-triggered cell death in N.benthamiana.These results indicate that the core T3Es in R.solanacearum play diverse roles in plantpathogen interactions.
文摘Huanglongbing (HLB) or citrus greening is currently the most important citrus disease, caused by the bacterium </span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Candidatus</span></i><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> Liberibacter asiaticus (</span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">C</span></i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Las). The impossibility of isolating it causes understanding its pathogenic mechanisms to be a complicated task. Recent studies identified 16 proteins with the signal peptide needed to be secreted in the plant and cause the disease. The present study aims to perform a bioinformatic analysis of these proteins with the function prediction approach by gene ontology (GO) and the detection of conserved domains. It was observed that of the 16 proteins analyzed not all are found in different infective strains reported in the literature. The GO analysis allowed us to relate different proteins with the biological process of energy and pathogenic activity, especially CLIBASIA_03315 and CLIBASIA_05115, respectively. The domain analysis allowed the observation of a </span></span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">β</span></i><span style="font-family:""><span style="font-family:Verdana;">-CA domain, tentatively related to the damage caused to the chloroplast and a PAAR domain associated with the T6SS secretory system. Our results provide information on the possible function of potential pathogenicity effectors in </span><i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">C</span></i><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Las.
基金supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32272029)the Hubei Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China(2022CFA025,2022CFA079)to Q.C.
文摘Extracellular vesicles(EVs)facilitate cross-kingdom communication by delivering bioactive molecules between cells.Although the role of fungal EVs in cross-kingdom RNA trafficking is well documented,whether and how they deliver pathogen-derived virulence effectors into host plants to facilitate infection remains largely unknown.Here,we report that the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani secretes vesicles enriched with the EV marker R.solani tetraspanin 2(RsTsp2)and the effectors R.solani necrosis-promoting protein 8(RsNP8)and R.solani serine protease(RsSerp).These proteins are upregulated during infection and are critical for fungal virulence.Notably,clathrin-coated vesicles accumulate at the fungal infection sites,and RsTsp2,RsSerp,and RsNP8 are detectable within these vesicles,indicating their entry into plant cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis.RsNP8 is translocated into the chloroplast,where it interacts with NP8-interacting chloroplast protein 1(NICP1)in Arabidopsis.NICP1 contributes to plant immunity by regulating the reactive oxygen species burst during infection,whereas RsNP8 suppresses this immune response.Silencing of RsTsp2,RsSerp,and RsNP8 in R.solani attenuates sheath blight disease progression in rice.Taken together,these findings demonstrate that fungal EVs enable cross-kingdom delivery of effectors into plant cells,revealing a previously unrecognized mechanism by which eukaryotic pathogens invade host plants.
基金supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Korean government(MSIT)(NRF-RS-2025-00512558NRF-RS-2024-00333777 to D.C.and NRF-RS-2024-00333225 to S.O.).
文摘Plants encounter numerous microorganisms in the environment.However,only a few microbes are pathogenic to a plant species.To colonize plants,pathogens should be able to bypass or suppress multiple layers of the plant defense system,composed of pre-formed physico-chemical barriers and post-invasive immune systems.Thus,each plant pathogenic microorganism has its own host range,depending on the direction in which it is specialized or adapted.But,simultaneously,this specialization results in a lack of adaptation to most other plants,which have different immune components compared to the host plant species of a given pathogen.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32202251,32230089 and 32070139)China Agriculture Research System(CARS-21).
文摘Plant diseases cause dramatic economic loss,posing a major challenge to modern agriculture.Plant pathogenic organisms secret effectors that utilize fascinating and intricate stratagems to facilitate infection.The consequences of plant-pathogen interactions are largely determined by effectors.The effector research has made great strides since its inception in the 1990s and the importance of effectors is increasingly noticed.Molecular investigation of effectors has provided critical insights into how plant pathogens manipulate their hosts to cause diseases.Thus far,numerous excellent reviews concerning effectors have focused on their targeting host pathways,recognition by host receptors,and evasion mechanisms,but few have ever summarized all known effector action modes.Here,we distinguish ten different stratagems of effector function from all types of pathogens,including damage,inhibition,hijacking,promotion,subversion,mimicry,reprogramming,evasion,decoying,and adaption.Furthermore,we discuss examples of these ten stratagems,refine the effector definition,and propose future directions of phytopathogenic effector research.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32230089,32070139,32372493,32402315,and 32270208)the China Agricultural Research System(CARS-21)+1 种基金the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2022M721655)the Postdoctoral Innovation Talent Support Program(BX20220153).
文摘Plasma membrane intrinsic proteins(PIPs),a subclass of aquaporins,play an important role in plant immunity by acting as H2O2 transporters.Their homeostasis is mostly maintained by C-terminal serine phosphorylation.However,the kinases that phosphorylate PIPs and manipulate their turnover are largely unknown.Here,we found that Arabidopsis thaliana PIP2;7 positively regulates plant immunity by transporting H_(2)O_(2).Arabidopsis CALCIUM-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE 28(CPK28)directly interacts with and phosphorylates PIP2;7 at Ser273/276 to induce its degradation.During pathogen infection,CPK28 dissociates from PIP2;7 and destabilizes,leading to PIP2;7 accumulation.As a countermeasure,oomycete pathogens produce conserved kinase effectors that stably bind to and mediate the phosphorylation of PIP2;7 to induce its degradation.Our study identifies PIP2;7 as a novel substrate of CPK28 and shows that its protein stability is negatively regulated by CPK28.Such phosphorylation could be mimicked by Phytophthora kinase effectors to promote infection.Accordingly,we developed a strategy to combat oomycete infection using a phosphorylation-resistant PIP2;7S273/276A mutant.The strategy only allows accumulation of PIP2;7^(S273/276A) during infection to limit potential side effects on normal plant growth.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32402315,32230089,32372493 and 32270208)the China Agricultural Research System(CARS-21)+1 种基金the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province,China(BK20230984)the Postgraduate Research&Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province(KYCX22_0770).
文摘Plants possess remarkably durable resistance against non-adapted pathogens in nature.However,the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood,and it is unclear how the resistance is maintained without coevolution between hosts and non-adapted pathogens.In this study,we used Phytophthora sojae(Ps),a non-adapted pathogen of Nicotiana benthamiana(Nb),as a model and identified an RXLR effector that determines Nb incompatibility to Ps.Knockout of this RXLR effector in Ps enables successful infection of Nb,leading us to name it AvrNb(Avirulence gene in Nb).A systematic screening of Nb NLR genes further revealed that NbPrf,previously reported to be a receptor of bacterial avirulence proteins,is the NLR protein responsible for mediating AvrNb recognition and initiating the hypersensitive response(HR).Mutation in NbPrf makes Nb completely compatible to Ps.We found that AvrNb is structurally conserved among multiple Phytophthora pathogens,and its homologs also induce NbPrf-dependent HR.Remarkably,further inoculation assay showed that NbPrf is also involved in plant immunity to two adapted Phytophthora pathogens,Phytophthora infestans and Phytophthora capsici.Our findings suggest that NbPrf represents a promising resource for breeding resistance to Phytophthora pathogens and implicate that the conserved effectors present in both adapted and non-adapted pathogens may provide sufficient selective pressure to maintain the remarkably durable incompatibility between plants and non-adapted pathogens.
基金support of the Next-Generation BioGreen 21 Program of the Rural Development Administration(PJ013269)the Brain Pool Program of the Ministry of Science and ICT through the National Research Foundation of Korea(RS-2023-00262576)M.-Y.J.was supported by an NRF grant funded by the Korean government(Ministry of Science and ICT)(RS-2025000518246).
文摘Transcription activator-like effectors(TALEs) mimic eukaryotic transcriptional activators and translocate into host plant cells via the bacterial type Ⅲ secretion system(T3SS) during pathogenic interactions. They play a crucial role in disease development by regulating host genes. Despite this, the regulatory mechanisms by which TALEs control OsWRKY transcription factors(TFs) remain poorly understood. In this study, we show that two TALEs from Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae(Xoo) individually modulate two OsWRKY TFs, resulting in increased susceptibility and reduced host defense.Specifically, Xoo1219 and Xoo2145 activate the expression of OsWRKY104 and OsWRKY55, respectively, through direct interactions. OsWRKY104 increases the susceptibility to Xoo by activating OsSWEET11 and OsSWEET14, while OsWRKY55suppresses host defense against Xoo by directly regulating OsWRKY62. These findings suggest that TALEs hijack the host's OsWRKY TFs to create a favorable environment for bacterial survival.
基金funded by the Liaoning Applied Basic Research Program(2022JH2/101300284)Liaoning Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Fund(2022XTCX0503 and 2023QN2417).
文摘RXLR effectors are pathogenic factors secreted from oomycetes to manipulate the immunity of the host.Typical RXLR effectors contain an RXLR-dEER motif at the N-terminus,whereas atypical RXLRs show variations on this motif.The oomycete Phytophthora cactorum is known to infect over 200 plant species,resulting in significant agricultural economic losses.Although genome-wide identification and functional analyses of typical RXLRs from P.cactorum have been performed,little is known of atypical PcaRXLRs.Here,we identified RXLRs,both typical and atypical,in P.cactorum and compared them with those of other oomycete pathogens.Fewer RXLRs were identified in P.cactorum compared with other Phytophthora species,possibly due to fewer duplication events of RXLRs.In contrast,the percentage of atypical RXLRs was higher in P.cactorum than in other species,suggesting significant roles in P.cactorum pathogenesis.Analysis of RXLR gene expression showed that most were transcribed,suggesting their functionality.Transient expression of two atypical RXLRs in Nicotiana benthamiana showed that they induced necrosis dependent on host SGT1 and HSP90.Furthermore,two additional atypical RXLRs suppressed the defense response in N.benthamiana and promoted P.cactorum infection.These results demonstrate the vital role of atypical RXLRs in P.cactorum and provide valuable information on their evolutionary patterns and interactions with host plants.
基金The work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(31630064,U19A2027,and 31770140)to WS。
文摘Phytopathogenic fungi secrete a large arsenal of effector molecules,including proteinaceous effectors,small RNAs,phytohormones and derivatives thereof.The pathogenicity of fungal pathogens is primarily determined by these effectors that are secreted into host cells to undermine innate immunity,as well as to facilitate the acquisition of nutrients for their in planta growth and proliferation.After conventional and non-conventional secretion,fungal effectors are translocated into different subcellular compartments of the host cells to interfere with various biological processes.In extracellular spaces,apoplastic effectors cope with physical and chemical barriers to break the first line of plant defenses.Intracellular effectors target essential immune components on the plasma membrane,in the cytosol,including cytosolic organelles,and in the nucleus to suppress host immunity and reprogram host physiology,favoring pathogen colonization.In this review,we comprehensively summarize the recent advances in fungal effector biology,with a focus on the versatile virulence functions of fungal effectors in promoting pathogen infection and colonization.A perspective of future research on fungal effector biology is also discussed.
基金supported by grants from the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2022YFF1001500)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(CGPY2024001)the Zhongshan Biological Breeding Laboratory(ZSBBL-KY2023-03)。
文摘Soybean rust(SBR),caused by an obligate biotrophic pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi,is a devastating disease of soybean worldwide.However,the mechanisms underlying plant invasion by P.pachyrhizi are poorly understood,which hinders the development of effective control strategies for SBR.Here we performed detailed histological characterization on the infection cycle of P.pachyrhizi in soybean and conducted a high-resolution transcriptional dissection of P.pachyrhizi during infection.This revealed P.pachyrhizi infection leads to significant changes in gene expression with 10 co-expressed gene modules,representing dramatic transcriptional shifts in metabolism and signal transduction during different stages throughout the infection cycle.Numerous genes encoding secreted protein are biphasic expressed,and are capable of inhibiting programmed cell death triggered by microbial effectors.Notably,three co-expressed P.pachyrhizi apoplastic effectors(PpAE1,PpAE2,and PpAE3) were found to suppress plant immune responses and were essential for P.pachyrhizi infection.Double-stranded RNA coupled with nanomaterials significantly inhibited SBR infection by targeting PpAE1,PpAE2,and PpAE3,and provided long-lasting protection to soybean against P.pachyrhizi.Together,this study revealed prominent changes in gene expression associated with SBR and identified P.pachyrhizi virulence effectors as promising targets of RNA interference-based soybean protection strategy against SBR.
基金funded by State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation(NCCIR2023ZZ-10)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32172384 and 31501623)+1 种基金the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei(C2020204028)the Science and Technology Research Project of Higher Education of Hebei(ZC2023178).
文摘The NAC(NAM,ATAF1/2,and CUC2)is a defense-associated transcription factor(TF)family that positively regulates defense responses to pathogen infection.TaNAC069 positively regulates resistance in wheat to Puccinia triticina(Pt).However,the molecular mechanism of its interaction with a Pt effector is not clear.We found that Pt effector Pt-1234 interacts with TaNAC069 to subvert host immunity during Pt infection.Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that expression of Pt-1234 was significantly upregulated during the early stage of Pt infection.Protein-mediated cell death assays in wheat showed that the Pt-1234 protein was unable to induce cell death in wheat near-isogenic lines carrying different leaf rust resistance genes,whereas it suppressed BAX-induced cell death in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana.Silencing of Pt-1234 by host-induced gene silencing(HIGS)significantly reduced the virulence of Pt in the susceptible wheat variety Thatcher.The C subdomain of TaNAC069 was responsible for its interaction with Pt-1234,and the E subdomain was required for TaNAC069-mediated defense responses to Pt in planta.These findings indicate that Pt utilizes Pt-1234 to interact with wheat transcription factor TaNAC069 through its C subdomain,thereby modulating wheat immunity.
基金the Chinese National Science Fund(31901862,31772144,31721004)Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province(SBK2019040604)+1 种基金China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2018M640494)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Uni-versities(JCQY201904,KYXK202010).
文摘Alternative splicing(AS)of pre-mRNAs increases transcriptome and proteome diversity,regulates gene expression through multiple mechanisms,and plays important roles in plant development and stress responses.However,the prevalence of genome-wide plant AS changes during infection and the mechanisms by which pathogens modulate AS remain poorly understood.Here,we examined the global AS changes in tomato leaves infected with Phytophthora infestans,the infamous Irish famine pathogen.We show that more than 2000 genes exhibiting significant changes in AS are not differentially expressed,indicating that AS is a distinct layer of transcriptome reprogramming during plant-pathogen interactions.Furthermore,our results show that P.infestans subverts host immunity by repressing the AS of positive regulators of plant immunity and promoting the AS of susceptibility factors.To study the underlying mechanism,we established a luminescence-based AS reporter system in Nicotiana benthamiana to screen pathogen effectors modulating plant AS.We identified nine splicing regulatory effectors(SREs)from 87 P.infestans effectors.Further studies revealed that SRE3 physically binds U1-70K to manipulate the plant AS machinery and subsequently modulates AS-mediated plant immunity.Our study not only unveils genome-wide plant AS reprogramming during infection but also establishes a novel AS screening tool to identify SREs from a wide range of plant pathogens,providing opportunities to understand the splicing regulatory mechanisms through which pathogens subvert plant immunity.
基金supported by National Institute of Food and Agriculture(Award No.2010-65106-20675)supported by the National Science Foundation(Award No.IOS-072093 and IOSEAGER-1450331)Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation via a subcontract(B0426×5)from the National Research Institute,University of Greenwich,UK
文摘Hemipteran and dipteran insects have behavioral,cellular and chemical strategies for evading or coping with the host plant defenses making these insects particularly destructive pests worldwide. A critical component of a host plant＇s defense to herbivory is innate immunity. Here we review the status of our understanding of the receptors that contribute to perception of hemipteran and dipteran pests and highlight the gaps in our knowledge in these early events in immune signaling. We also highlight recent advances in identification of the effectors that activate pattern-triggered immunity and those involved in effector-triggered immunity.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 60804007)the Aviation Science Funds of China (Grant No. 20080751018)
文摘For an advanced aircraft, the amount of its effectors is much more than that for a traditional one, the functions of effectors are more complex and the coupling between each other is more severe. Based on the current control allocation research, this paper puts forward the concept and framework of the control allocation and management system for aircrafts with redundancy con-trol effectors. A new optimal control allocation method, bases sequenced optimal (BSO) method, is then presented. By analyz-ing the physical meaning of the allocation process of BSO method, four types of management strategies are adopted by the system, which act on the control allocation process under different flight conditions, mission requirements and effectors work-ing conditions. Simulation results show that functions of the control allocation system are extended and the system adaptability to flight status, mission requirements and effector failure conditions is improved.
基金support from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council grants BB/P020569/1,BB/N009967/1,and BB/L026880/1the ERC-Advanced grant PathEVome(787764)+1 种基金the Scottish Government Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services Division.Q.H.is grateful for the Project 2662020YLQD001supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities and Research Start Fund 105/11042010004 for High-Level talents in Huazhong Agricultural University,China.
文摘The ability to secrete effector proteins that can enter plant cells and manipulate host processes is a key determinant of what makes a successful plant pathogen.Here,we review intracellular effectors from filamentous(fungal and oomycete)phytopathogens and the host proteins and processes that are targeted to promote disease.We cover contrasting virulence strategies and effector modes of action.Filamentous pathogen effectors alter the fates of host proteins that they target,changing their stability,their activity,their location,and the protein partners with which they interact.Some effectors inhibit target activity,whereas others enhance or utilize it,and some target multiple host proteins.We discuss the emerging topic of effectors that target negative regulators of immunity or other plant proteins with activities that support susceptibility.We also highlight the commonly targeted host proteins that are manipulated by effectors from multiple pathogens,including those representing different kingdoms of life.
