Peanut(Arachis hypogaea),which is widely cultivated across the world,provides high-quality vegetable oil,protein,dietary fiber,minerals,and vitamins for humans.However,in field conditions,the peanut is easily affected...Peanut(Arachis hypogaea),which is widely cultivated across the world,provides high-quality vegetable oil,protein,dietary fiber,minerals,and vitamins for humans.However,in field conditions,the peanut is easily affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses.Diplodia gossypina is the dominant pathogen causing severe collar rot on peanuts.To dissect the pathogenic mechanism of D.gossypina,genome sequencing analysis was performed by using the D.gossypina strain A20_4.The sequencing data showed that the genome assembly size of D.gossypina A20_4 is 43.03 Mb with a GC content of 54.91%.The de novo assembly identified a total of 10,745 genes,containing 41,526 coding sequences and 2.20%of repeat sequences,of which 6,461 genes(60.13%)were annotated using BlastP from GO annotation,3,245 genes(30.20%)and 3,093 genes(28.79%)were annotated from KOG and KEGG annotations,respectively.Meanwhile,the secreted proteins and effectors in 10,745 protein sequences encoded by the whole genome of D.gossypina A20_4 were analyzed,and the results showed that there are 790 secreted protein genes including 220 carbohydrate-active enzymes and 224 potential effector proteins.The functions of 222 potential effector proteins can be annotated by PHI-base.According to the annotation results,12 key pathogenic factors were identified in D.gossypina A20_4.Moreover,a serine/threonine protein kinase SNF1 gene required for autophagy process was identified and analyzed.Deciphering the whole genome of D.gossypina A20_4 provides us with novel insights into understanding evolution,pathogenic molecular mechanism,host-pathogen interaction,and many other complexities of the pathogen.展开更多
Root-knot nematodes being omnipresent in agricultural and horticultural soils are tallied among the most important economic pathogens around the world.For successful parasitism,these nematodes use various strategies t...Root-knot nematodes being omnipresent in agricultural and horticultural soils are tallied among the most important economic pathogens around the world.For successful parasitism,these nematodes use various strategies to control and manipulate the host plant’s cell machinery.These strategies include the mole-cular mimicry of some host genes by some nematode secreted effector proteins,secretion of cell wall digesting enzymes and other effector proteins that are responsible for the suppression of defence by the host plant.All these secretions which are released through the stylet,contribute to the formation of specialized feeding sites or giant cells.The effector proteins interfere with the normal physiology,cytology and biochemistry of the host plant.The present review brings novel insights by summarizing some novel effectors that have been discovered recently like MgPDI,MiMIF,MiIDL1,MiISE6,Mg16820,etc.It also discusses some novel mechanisms through which these effector proteins target different pathways of host plants and thus facilitate nematode parasitism.展开更多
Calreticulin(CALR)is a pleiotropic and highly conserved molecule and is recognized as an unfolded protein response effector protein.Moreover,CALR is an endoplasmic reticulum protein involved in a range of cellular pro...Calreticulin(CALR)is a pleiotropic and highly conserved molecule and is recognized as an unfolded protein response effector protein.Moreover,CALR is an endoplasmic reticulum protein involved in a range of cellular processes.展开更多
Conserved effectors produced by phytopathogens play critical roles in plant-microbe interactions.NIS1-like proteins represent a newly identified family of effectors distributed in multiple fungal species.However,their...Conserved effectors produced by phytopathogens play critical roles in plant-microbe interactions.NIS1-like proteins represent a newly identified family of effectors distributed in multiple fungal species.However,their biological functions in a majority of pathogenic fungi remain largely elusive and require further investigation.In this study,we characterized two NIS1-like proteins VmNIS1 and VmNIS2 from Valsa mali,the causal agent of apple Valsa canker.Both of these two proteins were predicted to be secreted.Using agroinfiltration,we found that VmNIS1 induced intense cell death,whereas VmNIS2 suppressed INF1 elicitin-triggered cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana.Treatment of N.benthamiana with VmNIS1 recombinant protein produced by Escherichia coli activated a series of immune responses and enhanced plant disease resistance against Phytophthora capsici.In contrast,VmNIS2 suppressed plant immune responses and promoted P.capsici infection when transiently expressed in N.benthamiana.Both VmNIS1 and VmNIS2 were shown to be highly induced at late stage of V.mali infection.By individually knocking out of these two genes in V.mali,however,only VmNIS2 was shown to be required for pathogen virulence as well as tolerance to oxidative stress.Notably,we further showed that C-terminal extension of VmNIS1 was essential for plant recognition and VmNIS2 may escape plant detection via sequence truncation.Our data collectively indicate that VmNIS1 and VmNIS2 play distinct roles in plant recognition and pathogen virulence,which provided new insights into the function of NIS1-like proteins in plant-microbe interactions.展开更多
Plants developed a sophisticated defense mechanism to safeguard themselves from a diverse range of pathogens,including fungi,oomycetes,bacteria,viruses,and nematodes.They utilize specific receptors to recognize these ...Plants developed a sophisticated defense mechanism to safeguard themselves from a diverse range of pathogens,including fungi,oomycetes,bacteria,viruses,and nematodes.They utilize specific receptors to recognize these threats.Initially,plants rely on pattern recognition receptors located on their cell surfaces to identify conserved molecules referred to as pathogen-associated molecular patterns(PAMPs),which triggers PAMPs-triggered immunity(PTI).However,adapted pathogens evolve to deliver effector proteins into host cells to counteract PTI,leading to effector-triggered susceptibility.In response,plants have acquired intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat(NLR)receptors to detect these effector proteins and activate effector-triggered immunity(ETI)against avirulent pathogens.展开更多
Alternative splicing(AS)is a crucial post-transcriptional mechanism in plants,significantly contributing to the diversification of biological processes and adaptive responses.Distinct splice isoforms are generated by ...Alternative splicing(AS)is a crucial post-transcriptional mechanism in plants,significantly contributing to the diversification of biological processes and adaptive responses.Distinct splice isoforms are generated by exon skipping(ES),intron retention(IR)and other mechanisms,enabling plants to adapt to a range of biotic stresses,including those posed by bacteria,fungi and viruses.Advances in bioinformatics have greatly improved the detection and characterization of AS events,revealing their critical roles in plant immunity.This review highlights the involvement of AS in regulating RNA interference(RNAi),hormone signaling pathways,and immune responses such as pattern-triggered immunity(PTI)and effector-triggered immunity(ETI).In addition,pathogens exploit AS to produce effectors that subvert plant immunity.Beyond its role in natural immunity,AS also holds promise for pesticide development,offering opportunities to enhance plant disease resistance by targeting pest-associated or immunity-related genes.Future research on AS under biotic stress is expected to uncover novel regulatory mechanisms and provide new strategies for crop improvement and sustainable agriculture.展开更多
NUcleoside Diphosphate-linked to moiety X(NUDIX)hydrolases are ubiquitous enzymes that maintain metabolic homeostasis by hydrolyzing potentially toxic nucleoside diphosphates.In plants and other eukaryotes,inositol py...NUcleoside Diphosphate-linked to moiety X(NUDIX)hydrolases are ubiquitous enzymes that maintain metabolic homeostasis by hydrolyzing potentially toxic nucleoside diphosphates.In plants and other eukaryotes,inositol pyrophosphates(PP-InsPs)act as central signaling molecules,linking cellular phosphate status to gene expression via SPX-domain receptors.A recent study(McCombe et al.,Science 387:955–962,2025)showed that several plant pathogenic fungi secrete NUDIX effector proteins that hydrolyze PP-InsPs and manipulate host phosphate signaling.In the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae,a cytoplasmic NUDIX effector(MoNUDIX)hydrolyzes PP-InsPs,triggers a phosphate starvation response and suppresses immunity in rice,thereby facilitating disease progression.In contrast,the lentil anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum lentis secretes CtNUDIX into the apoplast,where it disrupts PP-InsP-dependent endocytic machinery and elicits a hypersensitive cell death response.Collectively,these findings demonstrate how NUDIX effectors exemplify mechanistic diversification within a single effector family:manipulating phosphate signaling promotes biotrophic colonization,whereas disrupting host membrane integrity induces a switch to necrotrophy.展开更多
Puccinia triticina(Pt)is an obligate parasitic fungus that absorbs nutrients through haustoria during infection and secretes a repertoire of effector proteins into the host cells to regulate the immune response of the...Puccinia triticina(Pt)is an obligate parasitic fungus that absorbs nutrients through haustoria during infection and secretes a repertoire of effector proteins into the host cells to regulate the immune response of the host.Here,we identify an effector protein Pt3372 from the transcriptome data of interaction between the Pt race JHKT and the susceptible wheat cultivar Thatcher.Pt3372 was highly induced at the early stages in TcLr2a and TcLr18 infected by JHKT.The effector inhibited cell death induced by BAX(Bcl2-associated X)and INF1(Phytophthora infestans INF1)in Nicotiana benthamiana,as well as cell death induced by Pseudomonas syringae pv.tomato DC3000 in wheat.Pt3372 was proved to be localized in the cell membrane and nucleus of N.benthamiana.When transiently expressed in TcLr2a and TcLr18 through the bacterial type III secretion system,Pt3372 inhibited callose deposition and reactive oxygen species accumulation and suppressed the expression of wheat pathogenesis-related genes PR1 and PR2.Silencing Pt3372 by host-induced gene silencing reduced the Pt race JHKT virulence on TcLr2a and TcLr18.While it was enhanced by the overexpression of Pt3372 in transgenic wheat,which had a down-regulated expression of TaPR2 and glutathione reductase TaGR.Moreover,Pt3372 targets the elicitor-responsive protein TaERP3.Altogether,our results demonstrate that the effector Pt3372 suppresses the expression of TaPR1 and TaPR2 and the innate immunity by targeting the TaERP3.展开更多
Phytopathogens secrete effector proteins that disrupt plant immunity.Phytohormones,such as ethylene,function as immune signals that regulate plant responses to phytopathogens.However,the mechanisms by which powdery mi...Phytopathogens secrete effector proteins that disrupt plant immunity.Phytohormones,such as ethylene,function as immune signals that regulate plant responses to phytopathogens.However,the mechanisms by which powdery mildew fungi utilize effectors to manipulate ethylene signaling remain poorly understood.This study reports that Eae1,an effector from the powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe quercicola,can reduce ethylene levels and attenuate the immune response in rubber trees(Hevea brasiliensis),thereby promoting fungus infection.Notably,Eae1 shares homologs with effectors from other powdery mildew fungi.Our findings indicate that the Eae1 transcription can be induced by enhanced ethylene signaling.Eae1 is translocated to plant chloroplasts,where it destabilizes Hevea brasiliensis S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthetase,a key enzyme in ethylene biosynthesis,leading to reduced ethylene production.The chloroplast-localized protein Toc159/AIG1(AIG1)may facilitate this interaction.Overall,our study reveals a mechanism by which powdery mildew fungi disrupt ethylene-mediated resistance in host plants.展开更多
The development of durable and broad-spectrum resistance is an economical and eco-friendly approach to control crop diseases for sustainable agricultural production. Emerging knowledge of the molecular basis of pathog...The development of durable and broad-spectrum resistance is an economical and eco-friendly approach to control crop diseases for sustainable agricultural production. Emerging knowledge of the molecular basis of pathogenesis and plant–pathogen interactions has contributed to the development of novel pathogen-informed breeding strategies beyond the limits imposed by conventional breeding. Here,we review the current status of pathogen-assisted resistance-related gene cloning. We also describe how pathogen effector proteins can be used to identify resistance resources and to inform cultivar deployment. Finally, we summarize the main approaches for pathogen-directed plant improvement,including transgenesis and genome editing. Thus, we describe the emerging role of pathogen-related studies in the breeding of disease-resistant varieties, and propose innovative pathogen-informed strategies for future applications.展开更多
The member of Rho family of small GTPases Cdc42 plays important and conserved roles in cell polarity and motility. The Cdc42ep family proteins have been identified to bind to Cdc42, yet how they interact with Cdc42 to...The member of Rho family of small GTPases Cdc42 plays important and conserved roles in cell polarity and motility. The Cdc42ep family proteins have been identified to bind to Cdc42, yet how they interact with Cdc42 to regulate cell migration remains to be elucidated. In this study, we focus on Cdc42epl, which is expressed predominantly in the highly migratory neural crest ceils in frog embryos. Through morpholino-mediated knockdown, we show that Cdc42epl is required for the migration of cranial neural crest cells. Loss of Cdc42epl leads to rounder cell shapes and the formation of membrane blebs, consistent with the observed disruption in actin organization and focal adhesion alignment. As a result, Cdc42ep1 is critical for neural crest cells to apply traction forces at the correct place to migrate efficiently. We further show that Cdc42ep1 is localized to two areas in neural crest celts： in membrane protrusions together with Cdc42 and in perinuciear patches where Cdc42 is absent. Cdc42 directly interacts with Cdc42epl （through the CRIB domain） and changes in Cdc42 level shift the distribution of Cdc42epl between these two subcellular locations, controlling the formation of membrane protrusions and directionality of migration as a consequence. These results suggest that Cdc42ep1 elaborates Cdc42 activity in neural crest cells to promote their efficient migration.展开更多
基金The Major Science and Technology Project of Henan Province(Grant No.201300111000)The Basic scientific Research Project of Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences(Grant No.2022ZC37,2023ZC46)。
文摘Peanut(Arachis hypogaea),which is widely cultivated across the world,provides high-quality vegetable oil,protein,dietary fiber,minerals,and vitamins for humans.However,in field conditions,the peanut is easily affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses.Diplodia gossypina is the dominant pathogen causing severe collar rot on peanuts.To dissect the pathogenic mechanism of D.gossypina,genome sequencing analysis was performed by using the D.gossypina strain A20_4.The sequencing data showed that the genome assembly size of D.gossypina A20_4 is 43.03 Mb with a GC content of 54.91%.The de novo assembly identified a total of 10,745 genes,containing 41,526 coding sequences and 2.20%of repeat sequences,of which 6,461 genes(60.13%)were annotated using BlastP from GO annotation,3,245 genes(30.20%)and 3,093 genes(28.79%)were annotated from KOG and KEGG annotations,respectively.Meanwhile,the secreted proteins and effectors in 10,745 protein sequences encoded by the whole genome of D.gossypina A20_4 were analyzed,and the results showed that there are 790 secreted protein genes including 220 carbohydrate-active enzymes and 224 potential effector proteins.The functions of 222 potential effector proteins can be annotated by PHI-base.According to the annotation results,12 key pathogenic factors were identified in D.gossypina A20_4.Moreover,a serine/threonine protein kinase SNF1 gene required for autophagy process was identified and analyzed.Deciphering the whole genome of D.gossypina A20_4 provides us with novel insights into understanding evolution,pathogenic molecular mechanism,host-pathogen interaction,and many other complexities of the pathogen.
文摘Root-knot nematodes being omnipresent in agricultural and horticultural soils are tallied among the most important economic pathogens around the world.For successful parasitism,these nematodes use various strategies to control and manipulate the host plant’s cell machinery.These strategies include the mole-cular mimicry of some host genes by some nematode secreted effector proteins,secretion of cell wall digesting enzymes and other effector proteins that are responsible for the suppression of defence by the host plant.All these secretions which are released through the stylet,contribute to the formation of specialized feeding sites or giant cells.The effector proteins interfere with the normal physiology,cytology and biochemistry of the host plant.The present review brings novel insights by summarizing some novel effectors that have been discovered recently like MgPDI,MiMIF,MiIDL1,MiISE6,Mg16820,etc.It also discusses some novel mechanisms through which these effector proteins target different pathways of host plants and thus facilitate nematode parasitism.
基金supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.82073130).
文摘Calreticulin(CALR)is a pleiotropic and highly conserved molecule and is recognized as an unfolded protein response effector protein.Moreover,CALR is an endoplasmic reticulum protein involved in a range of cellular processes.
基金supported by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2021 M690128)the Open Project Program of State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas(CSBAA2020011)+1 种基金National Natural Science Foundation-Xinjiang Joint Foundation of China(U1903206)Major Scientific and Technological Projects of Shaanxi Province(2020zdzx03-03-01).
文摘Conserved effectors produced by phytopathogens play critical roles in plant-microbe interactions.NIS1-like proteins represent a newly identified family of effectors distributed in multiple fungal species.However,their biological functions in a majority of pathogenic fungi remain largely elusive and require further investigation.In this study,we characterized two NIS1-like proteins VmNIS1 and VmNIS2 from Valsa mali,the causal agent of apple Valsa canker.Both of these two proteins were predicted to be secreted.Using agroinfiltration,we found that VmNIS1 induced intense cell death,whereas VmNIS2 suppressed INF1 elicitin-triggered cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana.Treatment of N.benthamiana with VmNIS1 recombinant protein produced by Escherichia coli activated a series of immune responses and enhanced plant disease resistance against Phytophthora capsici.In contrast,VmNIS2 suppressed plant immune responses and promoted P.capsici infection when transiently expressed in N.benthamiana.Both VmNIS1 and VmNIS2 were shown to be highly induced at late stage of V.mali infection.By individually knocking out of these two genes in V.mali,however,only VmNIS2 was shown to be required for pathogen virulence as well as tolerance to oxidative stress.Notably,we further showed that C-terminal extension of VmNIS1 was essential for plant recognition and VmNIS2 may escape plant detection via sequence truncation.Our data collectively indicate that VmNIS1 and VmNIS2 play distinct roles in plant recognition and pathogen virulence,which provided new insights into the function of NIS1-like proteins in plant-microbe interactions.
基金supported by the National Science Foundation(IOS-2207677 to Z.Q.F.).
文摘Plants developed a sophisticated defense mechanism to safeguard themselves from a diverse range of pathogens,including fungi,oomycetes,bacteria,viruses,and nematodes.They utilize specific receptors to recognize these threats.Initially,plants rely on pattern recognition receptors located on their cell surfaces to identify conserved molecules referred to as pathogen-associated molecular patterns(PAMPs),which triggers PAMPs-triggered immunity(PTI).However,adapted pathogens evolve to deliver effector proteins into host cells to counteract PTI,leading to effector-triggered susceptibility.In response,plants have acquired intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat(NLR)receptors to detect these effector proteins and activate effector-triggered immunity(ETI)against avirulent pathogens.
基金funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2021YFD1400500)National Natural Science Foundation of China(U23A6006,32272555)Ningbo Natural Science Foundation(2023Z124).
文摘Alternative splicing(AS)is a crucial post-transcriptional mechanism in plants,significantly contributing to the diversification of biological processes and adaptive responses.Distinct splice isoforms are generated by exon skipping(ES),intron retention(IR)and other mechanisms,enabling plants to adapt to a range of biotic stresses,including those posed by bacteria,fungi and viruses.Advances in bioinformatics have greatly improved the detection and characterization of AS events,revealing their critical roles in plant immunity.This review highlights the involvement of AS in regulating RNA interference(RNAi),hormone signaling pathways,and immune responses such as pattern-triggered immunity(PTI)and effector-triggered immunity(ETI).In addition,pathogens exploit AS to produce effectors that subvert plant immunity.Beyond its role in natural immunity,AS also holds promise for pesticide development,offering opportunities to enhance plant disease resistance by targeting pest-associated or immunity-related genes.Future research on AS under biotic stress is expected to uncover novel regulatory mechanisms and provide new strategies for crop improvement and sustainable agriculture.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.32172363)the Chinese Universities Scientific Fund(Grant No.10092004).
文摘NUcleoside Diphosphate-linked to moiety X(NUDIX)hydrolases are ubiquitous enzymes that maintain metabolic homeostasis by hydrolyzing potentially toxic nucleoside diphosphates.In plants and other eukaryotes,inositol pyrophosphates(PP-InsPs)act as central signaling molecules,linking cellular phosphate status to gene expression via SPX-domain receptors.A recent study(McCombe et al.,Science 387:955–962,2025)showed that several plant pathogenic fungi secrete NUDIX effector proteins that hydrolyze PP-InsPs and manipulate host phosphate signaling.In the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae,a cytoplasmic NUDIX effector(MoNUDIX)hydrolyzes PP-InsPs,triggers a phosphate starvation response and suppresses immunity in rice,thereby facilitating disease progression.In contrast,the lentil anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum lentis secretes CtNUDIX into the apoplast,where it disrupts PP-InsP-dependent endocytic machinery and elicits a hypersensitive cell death response.Collectively,these findings demonstrate how NUDIX effectors exemplify mechanistic diversification within a single effector family:manipulating phosphate signaling promotes biotrophic colonization,whereas disrupting host membrane integrity induces a switch to necrotrophy.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32172367,31571956)Natural Science Foundation of Hebei(C2024204135)+1 种基金Modern Agricultural Industry System of Wheat Industry in Hebei Province(HBCT2023010205)Xingtai Innovation Ability Promotion Plan Project(2023ZZ080)。
文摘Puccinia triticina(Pt)is an obligate parasitic fungus that absorbs nutrients through haustoria during infection and secretes a repertoire of effector proteins into the host cells to regulate the immune response of the host.Here,we identify an effector protein Pt3372 from the transcriptome data of interaction between the Pt race JHKT and the susceptible wheat cultivar Thatcher.Pt3372 was highly induced at the early stages in TcLr2a and TcLr18 infected by JHKT.The effector inhibited cell death induced by BAX(Bcl2-associated X)and INF1(Phytophthora infestans INF1)in Nicotiana benthamiana,as well as cell death induced by Pseudomonas syringae pv.tomato DC3000 in wheat.Pt3372 was proved to be localized in the cell membrane and nucleus of N.benthamiana.When transiently expressed in TcLr2a and TcLr18 through the bacterial type III secretion system,Pt3372 inhibited callose deposition and reactive oxygen species accumulation and suppressed the expression of wheat pathogenesis-related genes PR1 and PR2.Silencing Pt3372 by host-induced gene silencing reduced the Pt race JHKT virulence on TcLr2a and TcLr18.While it was enhanced by the overexpression of Pt3372 in transgenic wheat,which had a down-regulated expression of TaPR2 and glutathione reductase TaGR.Moreover,Pt3372 targets the elicitor-responsive protein TaERP3.Altogether,our results demonstrate that the effector Pt3372 suppresses the expression of TaPR1 and TaPR2 and the innate immunity by targeting the TaERP3.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32360640)Collaborative Innovation Center of Nanfan and High Efficiency Tropical Agriculture of Hainan University(XTCX2022NYA01)+2 种基金the Hainan Province Science and Technology Talent Innovation Project(KJRC2023B14)Hainan Yazhou Bay Seed Laboratory(B21HJ0905)the Tropical High-efficiency Agricultural Industry Technology System of Hainan University(THAITS-3).
文摘Phytopathogens secrete effector proteins that disrupt plant immunity.Phytohormones,such as ethylene,function as immune signals that regulate plant responses to phytopathogens.However,the mechanisms by which powdery mildew fungi utilize effectors to manipulate ethylene signaling remain poorly understood.This study reports that Eae1,an effector from the powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe quercicola,can reduce ethylene levels and attenuate the immune response in rubber trees(Hevea brasiliensis),thereby promoting fungus infection.Notably,Eae1 shares homologs with effectors from other powdery mildew fungi.Our findings indicate that the Eae1 transcription can be induced by enhanced ethylene signaling.Eae1 is translocated to plant chloroplasts,where it destabilizes Hevea brasiliensis S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthetase,a key enzyme in ethylene biosynthesis,leading to reduced ethylene production.The chloroplast-localized protein Toc159/AIG1(AIG1)may facilitate this interaction.Overall,our study reveals a mechanism by which powdery mildew fungi disrupt ethylene-mediated resistance in host plants.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31625023 and 32001959)the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20200286 and BK20170616)the Open Fund of Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources(JSPKLB202025)。
文摘The development of durable and broad-spectrum resistance is an economical and eco-friendly approach to control crop diseases for sustainable agricultural production. Emerging knowledge of the molecular basis of pathogenesis and plant–pathogen interactions has contributed to the development of novel pathogen-informed breeding strategies beyond the limits imposed by conventional breeding. Here,we review the current status of pathogen-assisted resistance-related gene cloning. We also describe how pathogen effector proteins can be used to identify resistance resources and to inform cultivar deployment. Finally, we summarize the main approaches for pathogen-directed plant improvement,including transgenesis and genome editing. Thus, we describe the emerging role of pathogen-related studies in the breeding of disease-resistant varieties, and propose innovative pathogen-informed strategies for future applications.
基金This work is supported by the National Institutes of Health （ROODE022796 to S.N.） and National Science Foundation （DMR- 0955811 to J.E.C. and PHY-0848797 to J.E.C. and D.T.K.）.
文摘The member of Rho family of small GTPases Cdc42 plays important and conserved roles in cell polarity and motility. The Cdc42ep family proteins have been identified to bind to Cdc42, yet how they interact with Cdc42 to regulate cell migration remains to be elucidated. In this study, we focus on Cdc42epl, which is expressed predominantly in the highly migratory neural crest ceils in frog embryos. Through morpholino-mediated knockdown, we show that Cdc42epl is required for the migration of cranial neural crest cells. Loss of Cdc42epl leads to rounder cell shapes and the formation of membrane blebs, consistent with the observed disruption in actin organization and focal adhesion alignment. As a result, Cdc42ep1 is critical for neural crest cells to apply traction forces at the correct place to migrate efficiently. We further show that Cdc42ep1 is localized to two areas in neural crest celts： in membrane protrusions together with Cdc42 and in perinuciear patches where Cdc42 is absent. Cdc42 directly interacts with Cdc42epl （through the CRIB domain） and changes in Cdc42 level shift the distribution of Cdc42epl between these two subcellular locations, controlling the formation of membrane protrusions and directionality of migration as a consequence. These results suggest that Cdc42ep1 elaborates Cdc42 activity in neural crest cells to promote their efficient migration.
