The fossil fuel powered mining truck fleets can contribute up to 80%of total emissions in open pit mines.This study investigates the optimal decarbonisation pathway for mining truck fleets.Notably,our proposed pathway...The fossil fuel powered mining truck fleets can contribute up to 80%of total emissions in open pit mines.This study investigates the optimal decarbonisation pathway for mining truck fleets.Notably,our proposed pathway incorporates power generation,negative carbon technologies,and carbon trading.Technical,financial,and environmental models of decarbonisation technologies are established,capturing regional variations and time dynamic characteristics such as cost trends and carbon capture efficiency.The dynamic natures of characteristics pose challenges for using the cost-effective analyses approach to find the optimal decarbonisation pathway.To address this,we introduce a mixed-integer programming optimisation framework to find the decarbonisation pathway with minimum life cycle costs during the planning period.A case study for the optimal decarbonisation pathway of truck fleets in a South African coal mine is conducted to illustrate the applicability of the proposed model.Results indicate that the optimal decarbonisation pathway is significantly influenced by factors such as land cost,annual budget,and carbon trading prices.The proposed method provides invaluable guidance for transitioning towards a cleaner and more sustainable mining industry.展开更多
Specimens of the forest species such as Pentaclethra macrophylla, Petersianthus macrocarpus, Pycnanthus angolensis and Terminalia superba have been sampled from LUKI Biosphere reserve in the Democratic Republic of the...Specimens of the forest species such as Pentaclethra macrophylla, Petersianthus macrocarpus, Pycnanthus angolensis and Terminalia superba have been sampled from LUKI Biosphere reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in order to determine their wood density with the perspective to decarbonisation. These parameters have been found out experimentally utilizing a drying technique in an oven including techniques of immersion in an Erlenmeyer full of water. The corresponding results indicated that the four species wood density is respectively 0.85, 0.80, 0.77 and 0.51. These preliminary results will be useful in our ongoing project on carbon dioxide absorption capacity of Congo rainforest tree species.展开更多
Hydrogen technologies and fuel cells offer an alternative and improved solution for a decarbonised energy future.Fuel cells are electrochemical converters;transforming hydrogen (or energy sources containing hydrogen) ...Hydrogen technologies and fuel cells offer an alternative and improved solution for a decarbonised energy future.Fuel cells are electrochemical converters;transforming hydrogen (or energy sources containing hydrogen) and oxygen directly into electricity.The hydrogen fuel cell,invented in 1839,permits the generation of electrical energy with high efficiency through a non-combustion,electrochemical process and,importantly,without the emission ofits point of use.Hitherto,despite numerous efforts to exploit the obvious attractions of hydrogen technologies and hydrogen fuel cells,various challenges have been encountered,some of which are reviewed here.Now,however,given the exigent need to urgently seek low-carbon paths for humankind’s energy future,numerous countries are advancing the deployment of hydrogen technologies and hydrogen fuel cells not only for transport,but also as a means of the storage of excess renewable energy from,for example,wind and solar farms.Furthermore,hydrogen is also being blended into the natural gas supplies used in domestic heating and targeted in the decarbonisation of critical,large-scale industrial processes such as steel making.We briefly review specific examples in countries such as Japan,South Korea and the People’s Republic of China,as well as selected examples from Europe and North America in the utilization of hydrogen technologies and hydrogen fuel cells.展开更多
The upcoming COP23 at Bonn of the UN and its UNFCCC must outline how its COP21 objectives are to be promoted by means of concrete international and national management. Only a massive replacement of fossil fuels and w...The upcoming COP23 at Bonn of the UN and its UNFCCC must outline how its COP21 objectives are to be promoted by means of concrete international and national management. Only a massive replacement of fossil fuels and wood coal by solar power parks, can wind power and atomic power save mankind from the grave threats of global warming. This paper presents a tentative estimation of what is involved with regard to the fulfilment of COP21 ＇s GOAL II--decarbonisation to 30-40 per cent of 2005 level of emissions.展开更多
This paper assesses the evolution of generation technology-mix in Australia,with specific emphasis on understanding how such evolution has been shaped by wider political and socioeconomic influences.This assessment is...This paper assesses the evolution of generation technology-mix in Australia,with specific emphasis on understanding how such evolution has been shaped by wider political and socioeconomic influences.This assessment is predicated on the argument that the contemporary,quintessentially techno-economic,policy discourse on renewable energy is deficient,as it ignores climacteric political and socio-economic influences on generation technology-mix.The methodological framework employed in this paper is informed by the core tenets of technological change theory.The assessment suggests that generation technology-mix in Australia has historically been overwhelmingly influenced by the underlying technological paradigm of the electricity industry;and that this technological paradigm essentially draws its imprimatur from the wider political and socio-economic contexts.By implication,it suggests that a rapid uptake of renewables will have widespread ramifications,extending into political,socio-economic and cultural realms of a society.Clearly,existing policy discourse-that tends to focus on technical potentials,cost competitiveness,externalities and risks of various renewable technologies-is deficient.A much broader discourse is needed.This paper also made an attempt to develop a basis for such a discourse by reviewing broader aspects of the Australian society that would be affected by a rapid uptake of renewables.展开更多
Calcium looping is a promising CO_(2)capture technology due to reduced energy and economic penalties compared to mature solvent scrubbing technologies.It also can enable negative CO_(2)emissions when biomass is used t...Calcium looping is a promising CO_(2)capture technology due to reduced energy and economic penalties compared to mature solvent scrubbing technologies.It also can enable negative CO_(2)emissions when biomass is used to drive the sorbent regeneration process in the calciner.However,the trade-off between the energy,economic and environmental performance under different biomass co-firing fractions in the calciner and process operating scenarios has not yet been well understood.This study examined the potential for transforming a 580 MW_(el) coal-fired power plant into a negative CO_(2)emitter via retrofit of calcium looping with biomass co-firing in the calciner.High-fidelity process models were developed in Aspen Plus and used to analyse the effect of biomass co-firing fraction,CO_(2)capture rate in the carbonator,and the fraction of flue gas fed to the carbonator on the techno-economic performance indicators.The results revealed that co-firing 30%biomass with coal in the calciner was sufficient for the retrofitted process to achieve negative CO_(2)emissions(-3.9 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h).In this scenario,the levelized cost of electricity was 5%lower(81.1€/MW_(el)h)than that in the reference retrofit scenario without biomass co-firing(85.4€/MW_(el)h)at a carbon tax of 100€/tCO_(2).Further improvement to the techno-economic performance was achieved by reducing the amount of CO_(2)captured in the carbonator by reducing either the CO_(2)capture rate(81.1€/tCO_(2))or the amount of flue gas processed(80.4€/tCO_(2)).Although this was achieved at the expense of the increased specific CO_(2)emissions to 65.2 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h and 109.0 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h,respectively,the net specific emissions were still about 90%lower than those of the unabated host plant(792.3 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h).This study demonstrated that depending on design priorities,biomass co-firing in the calciner can transform the existing coal-fired power plants into negative CO_(2)emission technologies or improve the process techno-economic viability.展开更多
Heat pumps are a solution for decarbonising home heating in the UK.However,the readiness of UK homes for heat pumps is an area of concern regarding the policies aimed at increasing heat pump adoption.This work com-bin...Heat pumps are a solution for decarbonising home heating in the UK.However,the readiness of UK homes for heat pumps is an area of concern regarding the policies aimed at increasing heat pump adoption.This work com-bines multiple perspectives in evaluating the technical readiness of homes with the market readiness of install-ers and homeowners to proceed with installing heat pumps.The effectiveness of past heating and energy effi-ciency policies in the UK are reviewed,along with building regulations,incentives to promote energy efficiency and the effectiveness of heat pump technology in heating homes.Current policies support the cost of a heat pump but home improvements to make homes‘heat pump-ready’can be necessary to achieve optimal heat pump system performance.This paper suggests the UK will face three major challenges.First,analysis highlights an‘eligibility-readiness gap’describing the difference between homes‘eligible’(50%)for the Government’s Boiler Upgrade Scheme—a subsidy for heat pump installations—and the likely level of homes that are heat pump-ready(11%)for successful heat pump installations.Second,semi-structured interviews with heat pump installers identified gaps in capacity to deliver the necessary works to make homes heat pump-ready.As small or medium enterprises,the majority of installers do not currently see adding home improvement services to their existing business model as beneficial.All install-ers highlighted the need for Government to address the cost of electricity relative to gas.Third,a national survey of homeowners in England with gas boilers(n=1,021)revealed low awareness of the necessary work to make homes heat pump-ready and low willingness to spend money on them unless supported by Government.This paper shows that the processes and costs involved in making homes heat pump-ready before successful design and installation are underappreciated by homeowners,inadequately served by industry,and insufficiently supported by Government.展开更多
Renewable energy sources and low-carbon power generation systems with carbon capture and storage(CCS)are expected to be key contributors towards the decarbonisation of the energy sector and to ensure sustainable energ...Renewable energy sources and low-carbon power generation systems with carbon capture and storage(CCS)are expected to be key contributors towards the decarbonisation of the energy sector and to ensure sustainable energy supply in the future.However,the variable nature of wind and solar power generation systems may affect the operation of the electricity system grid.Deployment of energy storage is expected to increase grid stability and renewable energy utilisation.The power sector of the future,therefore,needs to seek a synergy between renewable energy sources and low-carbon fossil fuel power generation.This can be achieved via wide deployment of CCS linked with energy storage.Interestingly,recent progress in both the CCS and energy storage fields reveals that technologies such as calcium looping are technically viable and promising options in both cases.Novel integrated systems can be achieved by integrating these applications into CCS with inherent energy storage capacity,as well as linking other CCS technologies with renewable energy sources via energy storage technologies,which will maximise the profit from electricity production,mitigate efficiency and economic penalties related to CCS,and improve renewable energy utilisation.展开更多
Basic materials such as steel,cement,aluminium,and(petro)chemicals are the building blocks of industrialised societies.However,their production is extremely energy and emission intensive,and these industries need to d...Basic materials such as steel,cement,aluminium,and(petro)chemicals are the building blocks of industrialised societies.However,their production is extremely energy and emission intensive,and these industries need to decarbonise their emissions over the next decades to keep global warming at least below 2°C.Low-emission industrial-scale production processes are not commercially available for any of these basic materials and require policy support to ensure their large-scale diffusion over the upcoming decades.The novel transition to industry decarbonisation(TRANSid)model analyses the framework conditions that enable large-scale investment decisions in climate-friendly basic material options.We present a simplified case study of the cement sector to demonstrate the process by which the model optimises investment and operational costs in carbon capture technology by 2050.Furthermore,we demonstrate that extending the model to other sectors allows for the analysis of industry-and sector-specific policy options.展开更多
Decarbonisation of district heating and cooling(DHC)system in Helsinki metropolitan area requires investments in new energy technologies and approaches to replace fossil fuel fired district heating(DH)production.Inves...Decarbonisation of district heating and cooling(DHC)system in Helsinki metropolitan area requires investments in new energy technologies and approaches to replace fossil fuel fired district heating(DH)production.Invest-ment paths involving(a)DH heat pumps(HPs)from low quality heat sources and(b)small modular nuclear reactors(SMR)are compared by utilising investment analysis based on optimisation model depicting the as-sumed 2030 situation.Several scenarios,with varying assumptions concerning existing DHC system,investment costs and electricity prices,are analysed in terms of new capacity and total annualised costs.The results indicate that the SMR option is more cost-efficient than the HP option with 4-8€/MWh difference in operation costs including annualised investments.Biomass fired boiler investments,enabled in both options,are preferred to HP investments in most scenarios.The cost-efficiency of HP investments is sensitive to investment cost,whereas SMR investments are relatively stable to investment cost variations.Varying electricity market prices affect cost-efficiency of large-scale HPs,and investments in SMR cogeneration units take place only with high electricity prices.展开更多
基金National Key R&D Program of China(Grant No.2021YFE0199000)National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.62133015)National Research Foundation China/South Africa Research Cooperation Programme with Grant No.148762,and Royal Academy of Engineering Transforming Systems through Partnership grant scheme with reference No.TSP2021\100016.
文摘The fossil fuel powered mining truck fleets can contribute up to 80%of total emissions in open pit mines.This study investigates the optimal decarbonisation pathway for mining truck fleets.Notably,our proposed pathway incorporates power generation,negative carbon technologies,and carbon trading.Technical,financial,and environmental models of decarbonisation technologies are established,capturing regional variations and time dynamic characteristics such as cost trends and carbon capture efficiency.The dynamic natures of characteristics pose challenges for using the cost-effective analyses approach to find the optimal decarbonisation pathway.To address this,we introduce a mixed-integer programming optimisation framework to find the decarbonisation pathway with minimum life cycle costs during the planning period.A case study for the optimal decarbonisation pathway of truck fleets in a South African coal mine is conducted to illustrate the applicability of the proposed model.Results indicate that the optimal decarbonisation pathway is significantly influenced by factors such as land cost,annual budget,and carbon trading prices.The proposed method provides invaluable guidance for transitioning towards a cleaner and more sustainable mining industry.
文摘Specimens of the forest species such as Pentaclethra macrophylla, Petersianthus macrocarpus, Pycnanthus angolensis and Terminalia superba have been sampled from LUKI Biosphere reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in order to determine their wood density with the perspective to decarbonisation. These parameters have been found out experimentally utilizing a drying technique in an oven including techniques of immersion in an Erlenmeyer full of water. The corresponding results indicated that the four species wood density is respectively 0.85, 0.80, 0.77 and 0.51. These preliminary results will be useful in our ongoing project on carbon dioxide absorption capacity of Congo rainforest tree species.
基金Professor Sir John Meurig Thomas FRS FREng,Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy,University of Cambridge.He is one of the founders of solid-state chemistry and the surface and materials chemistry of solids.He was one of the first chemists in the world to use electron microscopy as a chemical tool,which he initiated in the University of Wales(Bangor)in 1964.He has made numerous studies in heterogeneous catalysis and made significant contributions to the study of minerals,especially silicates,zeolites and clays as well as graphite and diamond.For his contributions to geochemistry,a new mineral,Meurigite,was named in his honour.He was once head of Physical Chemistry in the University of Cambridge and Director of the Royal Institution of Great BritainCorresponding author::Peter P.Edwards FRS ML holds the Statutory Chair of Inorganic Chemistry at Oxford and is the Co-Director of the KACST-Oxford Centre of Excellence in Petrochemicals,also at Oxford.He has previously held positions at Birmingham(Professor of Chemistry and of Materials),Cambridge(Lecturer in Chemistry and Director of Studies in Chemistry,Jesus College)and Cornell(British Fulbright Scholar and National Science Foundation Fellow).He was Co-Founder of the firstever UK Interdisciplinary Research Centre,that in Superconductivity at Cambridge and the UK Sustainable Hydrogen Energy Consortium(UKSHEC).He has been Chair of the European Research Council Advanced Investigators Award Panel on Chemical Synthesis and Advanced Materials.Edwards is Fellow of the Royal Society+1 种基金Einstein Professor of the Chinese Academy of SciencesMember,German Academy of Sciences,International Honorary Member of the US Academy of Arts and Sciences,International Member of the American Philosophical Society,and Member of the Academia Europaea.His current major interests include:Targeted reconstruction of plastic waste to hydrogen and starting monomers,converting carbon dioxide to carbon-neutral fuels and Green hydrogen from fossil hydrocarbon fuels,E-mail address:peter.edwards@chem.ox.ac.uk。
文摘Hydrogen technologies and fuel cells offer an alternative and improved solution for a decarbonised energy future.Fuel cells are electrochemical converters;transforming hydrogen (or energy sources containing hydrogen) and oxygen directly into electricity.The hydrogen fuel cell,invented in 1839,permits the generation of electrical energy with high efficiency through a non-combustion,electrochemical process and,importantly,without the emission ofits point of use.Hitherto,despite numerous efforts to exploit the obvious attractions of hydrogen technologies and hydrogen fuel cells,various challenges have been encountered,some of which are reviewed here.Now,however,given the exigent need to urgently seek low-carbon paths for humankind’s energy future,numerous countries are advancing the deployment of hydrogen technologies and hydrogen fuel cells not only for transport,but also as a means of the storage of excess renewable energy from,for example,wind and solar farms.Furthermore,hydrogen is also being blended into the natural gas supplies used in domestic heating and targeted in the decarbonisation of critical,large-scale industrial processes such as steel making.We briefly review specific examples in countries such as Japan,South Korea and the People’s Republic of China,as well as selected examples from Europe and North America in the utilization of hydrogen technologies and hydrogen fuel cells.
文摘The upcoming COP23 at Bonn of the UN and its UNFCCC must outline how its COP21 objectives are to be promoted by means of concrete international and national management. Only a massive replacement of fossil fuels and wood coal by solar power parks, can wind power and atomic power save mankind from the grave threats of global warming. This paper presents a tentative estimation of what is involved with regard to the fulfilment of COP21 ＇s GOAL II--decarbonisation to 30-40 per cent of 2005 level of emissions.
文摘This paper assesses the evolution of generation technology-mix in Australia,with specific emphasis on understanding how such evolution has been shaped by wider political and socioeconomic influences.This assessment is predicated on the argument that the contemporary,quintessentially techno-economic,policy discourse on renewable energy is deficient,as it ignores climacteric political and socio-economic influences on generation technology-mix.The methodological framework employed in this paper is informed by the core tenets of technological change theory.The assessment suggests that generation technology-mix in Australia has historically been overwhelmingly influenced by the underlying technological paradigm of the electricity industry;and that this technological paradigm essentially draws its imprimatur from the wider political and socio-economic contexts.By implication,it suggests that a rapid uptake of renewables will have widespread ramifications,extending into political,socio-economic and cultural realms of a society.Clearly,existing policy discourse-that tends to focus on technical potentials,cost competitiveness,externalities and risks of various renewable technologies-is deficient.A much broader discourse is needed.This paper also made an attempt to develop a basis for such a discourse by reviewing broader aspects of the Australian society that would be affected by a rapid uptake of renewables.
基金supported by the UK Carbon Capture and Storage Research Community Flexible Funding[2023].
文摘Calcium looping is a promising CO_(2)capture technology due to reduced energy and economic penalties compared to mature solvent scrubbing technologies.It also can enable negative CO_(2)emissions when biomass is used to drive the sorbent regeneration process in the calciner.However,the trade-off between the energy,economic and environmental performance under different biomass co-firing fractions in the calciner and process operating scenarios has not yet been well understood.This study examined the potential for transforming a 580 MW_(el) coal-fired power plant into a negative CO_(2)emitter via retrofit of calcium looping with biomass co-firing in the calciner.High-fidelity process models were developed in Aspen Plus and used to analyse the effect of biomass co-firing fraction,CO_(2)capture rate in the carbonator,and the fraction of flue gas fed to the carbonator on the techno-economic performance indicators.The results revealed that co-firing 30%biomass with coal in the calciner was sufficient for the retrofitted process to achieve negative CO_(2)emissions(-3.9 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h).In this scenario,the levelized cost of electricity was 5%lower(81.1€/MW_(el)h)than that in the reference retrofit scenario without biomass co-firing(85.4€/MW_(el)h)at a carbon tax of 100€/tCO_(2).Further improvement to the techno-economic performance was achieved by reducing the amount of CO_(2)captured in the carbonator by reducing either the CO_(2)capture rate(81.1€/tCO_(2))or the amount of flue gas processed(80.4€/tCO_(2)).Although this was achieved at the expense of the increased specific CO_(2)emissions to 65.2 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h and 109.0 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h,respectively,the net specific emissions were still about 90%lower than those of the unabated host plant(792.3 gCO_(2)/kW_(el)h).This study demonstrated that depending on design priorities,biomass co-firing in the calciner can transform the existing coal-fired power plants into negative CO_(2)emission technologies or improve the process techno-economic viability.
基金supported by the Low Temperature Heat Recovery and Distribution Network Technologies(LoT-NET)project,a£5.4 M research programme between four British universities and funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council(EPSRC)/UK Research and Innovation(UKRI),see grant reference EP/R045496/1 and http://www.lot net.org/.
文摘Heat pumps are a solution for decarbonising home heating in the UK.However,the readiness of UK homes for heat pumps is an area of concern regarding the policies aimed at increasing heat pump adoption.This work com-bines multiple perspectives in evaluating the technical readiness of homes with the market readiness of install-ers and homeowners to proceed with installing heat pumps.The effectiveness of past heating and energy effi-ciency policies in the UK are reviewed,along with building regulations,incentives to promote energy efficiency and the effectiveness of heat pump technology in heating homes.Current policies support the cost of a heat pump but home improvements to make homes‘heat pump-ready’can be necessary to achieve optimal heat pump system performance.This paper suggests the UK will face three major challenges.First,analysis highlights an‘eligibility-readiness gap’describing the difference between homes‘eligible’(50%)for the Government’s Boiler Upgrade Scheme—a subsidy for heat pump installations—and the likely level of homes that are heat pump-ready(11%)for successful heat pump installations.Second,semi-structured interviews with heat pump installers identified gaps in capacity to deliver the necessary works to make homes heat pump-ready.As small or medium enterprises,the majority of installers do not currently see adding home improvement services to their existing business model as beneficial.All install-ers highlighted the need for Government to address the cost of electricity relative to gas.Third,a national survey of homeowners in England with gas boilers(n=1,021)revealed low awareness of the necessary work to make homes heat pump-ready and low willingness to spend money on them unless supported by Government.This paper shows that the processes and costs involved in making homes heat pump-ready before successful design and installation are underappreciated by homeowners,inadequately served by industry,and insufficiently supported by Government.
基金This publication is based on research conducted within the“Redefining power generation from carbonaceous fliels with carbonate looping combustion and gasification technologies”project fUnded by U K Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council(EPSRC reference:EP/P034594/1).Data underlying this study can be accessed through the Cranfield University repository at 10.17862/cranfield.rd.8973440.
文摘Renewable energy sources and low-carbon power generation systems with carbon capture and storage(CCS)are expected to be key contributors towards the decarbonisation of the energy sector and to ensure sustainable energy supply in the future.However,the variable nature of wind and solar power generation systems may affect the operation of the electricity system grid.Deployment of energy storage is expected to increase grid stability and renewable energy utilisation.The power sector of the future,therefore,needs to seek a synergy between renewable energy sources and low-carbon fossil fuel power generation.This can be achieved via wide deployment of CCS linked with energy storage.Interestingly,recent progress in both the CCS and energy storage fields reveals that technologies such as calcium looping are technically viable and promising options in both cases.Novel integrated systems can be achieved by integrating these applications into CCS with inherent energy storage capacity,as well as linking other CCS technologies with renewable energy sources via energy storage technologies,which will maximise the profit from electricity production,mitigate efficiency and economic penalties related to CCS,and improve renewable energy utilisation.
文摘Basic materials such as steel,cement,aluminium,and(petro)chemicals are the building blocks of industrialised societies.However,their production is extremely energy and emission intensive,and these industries need to decarbonise their emissions over the next decades to keep global warming at least below 2°C.Low-emission industrial-scale production processes are not commercially available for any of these basic materials and require policy support to ensure their large-scale diffusion over the upcoming decades.The novel transition to industry decarbonisation(TRANSid)model analyses the framework conditions that enable large-scale investment decisions in climate-friendly basic material options.We present a simplified case study of the cement sector to demonstrate the process by which the model optimises investment and operational costs in carbon capture technology by 2050.Furthermore,we demonstrate that extending the model to other sectors allows for the analysis of industry-and sector-specific policy options.
基金The authors of this paper gratefully acknowledge the public fi-nancing of Business Finland for the“EcoSMR”project(Grant No.:9277/31/2019).
文摘Decarbonisation of district heating and cooling(DHC)system in Helsinki metropolitan area requires investments in new energy technologies and approaches to replace fossil fuel fired district heating(DH)production.Invest-ment paths involving(a)DH heat pumps(HPs)from low quality heat sources and(b)small modular nuclear reactors(SMR)are compared by utilising investment analysis based on optimisation model depicting the as-sumed 2030 situation.Several scenarios,with varying assumptions concerning existing DHC system,investment costs and electricity prices,are analysed in terms of new capacity and total annualised costs.The results indicate that the SMR option is more cost-efficient than the HP option with 4-8€/MWh difference in operation costs including annualised investments.Biomass fired boiler investments,enabled in both options,are preferred to HP investments in most scenarios.The cost-efficiency of HP investments is sensitive to investment cost,whereas SMR investments are relatively stable to investment cost variations.Varying electricity market prices affect cost-efficiency of large-scale HPs,and investments in SMR cogeneration units take place only with high electricity prices.
