At present, there are no criteria to distinguish soft-sediment deformation structures （SSDS） formed by earthquakes from SSDS formed by the other 20 triggering mechanisms （see a companion paper in Vol 5, No. 4 of th...At present, there are no criteria to distinguish soft-sediment deformation structures （SSDS） formed by earthquakes from SSDS formed by the other 20 triggering mechanisms （see a companion paper in Vol 5, No. 4 of this journal by Shanmugam, 2016）. Even if one betieves that earthquakes are the true triggering mechanism of SSDS in a given case, the story is stiff incomptete. This is because earthquakes （seismic shocks） are induced by a variety of causes： 1） glbaltectonics and associated faults （i.e., midocean ridges, trenches, and transform fautts）; 2） meteorite-impact events; 3） volcanic eruptions; 4） post-gtacialuplift; 5） tsunami impact; 6 cyclonic impact; 7） landslides （mass-transport deposits）; 8） tidal activity; 9） sea-tevet rise; 10） erosion; and 11） fluid pumping. These different causes are important for devetoping SSDS. Breccias are an important group of SSDS. Although there are many types of breccias classified on the basis of their origin, five types are discussed here （fault, volcanic, meteorite impact, sedimentary-depositionaL, sedimentary-collapse）. Atthough different breccia types may resemble each other, distinguishing one type （e.g., meteorite breccias） from the other types （e.g., fault, volcanic, and sedimentary breccias） has important imptications. 1） Meteorite breccias are characterized by shock features （e.g., planar deformation features in mineral grains, planar fractures, high-pressure polymorphs, shock melts, etc.）, whereas sedimentary- depositional breccias （e.g., debrites） do not. 2） Meteorite breccias imply a confined sediment distribution in the vicinity of craters, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias imply an unconfined sediment distribution, variable sediment transport, and variable sediment provenance. 3） Meteorite, volcanic, and fault breccias are invariabty subjected to diagenesis and hydrothermat mineratization with attered reservoir quality, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias exhibit primary （unaltered） reservoir quality. And finalty, 4） sedimentary-collapse breccias are associated with economic mineralization （e.g., uranium ore）, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias are associated with petroleum reservoirs. Based on this important group of SSDS with breccias, the current practice of interpreting all SSDS as ＂seismites＂ is inappropriate. Ending this practice is necessary for enhancing conceptuat clarity and for advancing this research domain.展开更多
Records of palaeoearthquakes in sedimentary rocks are often debated due to the potential confusion in distinguishing seismic versus aseismic trigger mechanisms causing liquefaction.The present paper documents some uni...Records of palaeoearthquakes in sedimentary rocks are often debated due to the potential confusion in distinguishing seismic versus aseismic trigger mechanisms causing liquefaction.The present paper documents some unique soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS),characterized by their extremely large size,complex morphology and preservation in coarse-grained pebbly sandstone.The SSDS are present in the Permian Barren Measures Formation,a syn-rift depositional unit within the Lower Gondwana succession in the Pranhita-Godavari Valley,eastern Peninsular India.The^210 m thick succession is represented by stacked fining-up retrogradational cycles,characterized by coarse-grained trough cross-stratified pebbly sandstones near the base and fine-grained heterolithic sandstones–mudstones at the top.Each cycle signifies a change from fluvial-to tidal-influenced depositional systems.Coarse-grained pebbly sandstone beds near the base of each cycle record most SSDS,including complexly deformed layers,pseudonodules,load and flame structures,various water-escape structures like vertical/inclined sediment columns(sedimentary dykes)and contorted beds,and syn-sedimentary faults.The deformed beds are underlain and overlain by the undeformed beds.Complexly deformed SSDS are often sharply truncated at the top by undeformed beds manifesting syn-sedimentary character,which signifies that deformation took place just after deposition of the affected beds,but before deposition of the overlying beds while sedimentation was continuous.Facies analysis reveals the absence of processes like storms/pounding waves,slumps,rapid dumping(massive beds),impact shaking,volcanisms,tsunami waves or sediment gravity flows in the study area,thus negating their possibility as triggering agents for the liquefaction.The complex nature and large size of the deformation structures imply extensive liquefaction near the sediment–water interface.In addition,the deformed beds comply with most of the criteria of typical seismites.In half-graben type Gondwana basins,such seismites can be linked to palaeoearthquakes,which signify the phases of syn-rift fault reactivation,basinal sagging and associated accommodation changes.展开更多
Soft-sediment deformation structures（SSDS）have been the focus of attention for over 150 years.Existing unconstrained definitions allow one to classify a wide range of features under the umbrella phrase＂SSDS＂.As a ...Soft-sediment deformation structures（SSDS）have been the focus of attention for over 150 years.Existing unconstrained definitions allow one to classify a wide range of features under the umbrella phrase＂SSDS＂.As a consequence,a plethora of at least 120 different types of SSDS（e.g.,convolute bedding,slump folds,load casts,dish-and-pillar structures,pockmarks,raindrop imprints,explosive sandegravel craters,clastic injections,crushed and deformed stromatolites,etc.）have been recognized in strata ranging in age from Paleoproterozoic to the present time.The two factors that control the origin of SSDS are prelithification deformation and liquidization.A sedimentological compendium of 140 case studies of SSDS worldwide,which include 30 case studies of scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）,published during a period between 1863and 2017,has yielded at least 31 different origins.Earthquakes have remained the single most dominant cause of SSDS because of the prevailing＂seismite＂mindset.Selected advances on SSDS research are：（1）an experimental study that revealed a quantitative similarity between raindrop-impact cratering and asteroid-impact cratering;（2）IODP Expedition 308 in the Gulf of Mexico that documented extensive lateral extent（〉12 km）of mass-transport deposits（MTD）with SSDS that are unrelated to earthquakes;（3）contributions on documentation of pockmarks,on recognition of new structures,and on large-scale sediment deformation on Mars.Problems that hinder our understanding of SSDS still remain.They are：（1）vague definitions of the phrase＂soft-sediment deformation＂;（2）complex factors that govern the origin of SSDS;（3）omission of vital empirical data in documenting vertical changes in facies using measured sedimentological logs;（4）difficulties in distinguishing depositional processes from tectonic events;（5）a model-driven interpretation of SSDS（i.e.,earthquake being the singular cause）;（6）routine application of the genetic term＂seismites＂to the＂SSDS＂,thus undermining the basic tenet of process sedimentology（i.e.,separation of interpretation from observation）;（7）the absence of objective criteria to differentiate 21 triggering mechanisms of liquefaction and related SSDS;（8）application of the process concept＂high-density turbidity currents＂,a process that has never been documented in modern oceans;（9）application of the process concept＂sediment creep＂with a velocity connotation that cannot be inferred from the ancient record;（10）classification of pockmarks,which are hollow spaces（i.e.,without sediments）as SSDS,with their problematic origins by fluid expulsion,sediment degassing,fish activity,etc.;（11）application of the Earth＇s climate-change model;and most importantly,（12）an arbitrary distinction between depositional process and sediment deformation.Despite a profusion of literature on SSDS,our understanding of their origin remains muddled.A solution to the chronic SSDS problem is to utilize the robust core dataset from scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）with a constrained definition of SSDS.展开更多
文摘At present, there are no criteria to distinguish soft-sediment deformation structures （SSDS） formed by earthquakes from SSDS formed by the other 20 triggering mechanisms （see a companion paper in Vol 5, No. 4 of this journal by Shanmugam, 2016）. Even if one betieves that earthquakes are the true triggering mechanism of SSDS in a given case, the story is stiff incomptete. This is because earthquakes （seismic shocks） are induced by a variety of causes： 1） glbaltectonics and associated faults （i.e., midocean ridges, trenches, and transform fautts）; 2） meteorite-impact events; 3） volcanic eruptions; 4） post-gtacialuplift; 5） tsunami impact; 6 cyclonic impact; 7） landslides （mass-transport deposits）; 8） tidal activity; 9） sea-tevet rise; 10） erosion; and 11） fluid pumping. These different causes are important for devetoping SSDS. Breccias are an important group of SSDS. Although there are many types of breccias classified on the basis of their origin, five types are discussed here （fault, volcanic, meteorite impact, sedimentary-depositionaL, sedimentary-collapse）. Atthough different breccia types may resemble each other, distinguishing one type （e.g., meteorite breccias） from the other types （e.g., fault, volcanic, and sedimentary breccias） has important imptications. 1） Meteorite breccias are characterized by shock features （e.g., planar deformation features in mineral grains, planar fractures, high-pressure polymorphs, shock melts, etc.）, whereas sedimentary- depositional breccias （e.g., debrites） do not. 2） Meteorite breccias imply a confined sediment distribution in the vicinity of craters, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias imply an unconfined sediment distribution, variable sediment transport, and variable sediment provenance. 3） Meteorite, volcanic, and fault breccias are invariabty subjected to diagenesis and hydrothermat mineratization with attered reservoir quality, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias exhibit primary （unaltered） reservoir quality. And finalty, 4） sedimentary-collapse breccias are associated with economic mineralization （e.g., uranium ore）, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias are associated with petroleum reservoirs. Based on this important group of SSDS with breccias, the current practice of interpreting all SSDS as ＂seismites＂ is inappropriate. Ending this practice is necessary for enhancing conceptuat clarity and for advancing this research domain.
基金supported by the Institute (MHRD) Fellowship provided to AS by the Indian Institute of Technology,Roorkee,India。
文摘Records of palaeoearthquakes in sedimentary rocks are often debated due to the potential confusion in distinguishing seismic versus aseismic trigger mechanisms causing liquefaction.The present paper documents some unique soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS),characterized by their extremely large size,complex morphology and preservation in coarse-grained pebbly sandstone.The SSDS are present in the Permian Barren Measures Formation,a syn-rift depositional unit within the Lower Gondwana succession in the Pranhita-Godavari Valley,eastern Peninsular India.The^210 m thick succession is represented by stacked fining-up retrogradational cycles,characterized by coarse-grained trough cross-stratified pebbly sandstones near the base and fine-grained heterolithic sandstones–mudstones at the top.Each cycle signifies a change from fluvial-to tidal-influenced depositional systems.Coarse-grained pebbly sandstone beds near the base of each cycle record most SSDS,including complexly deformed layers,pseudonodules,load and flame structures,various water-escape structures like vertical/inclined sediment columns(sedimentary dykes)and contorted beds,and syn-sedimentary faults.The deformed beds are underlain and overlain by the undeformed beds.Complexly deformed SSDS are often sharply truncated at the top by undeformed beds manifesting syn-sedimentary character,which signifies that deformation took place just after deposition of the affected beds,but before deposition of the overlying beds while sedimentation was continuous.Facies analysis reveals the absence of processes like storms/pounding waves,slumps,rapid dumping(massive beds),impact shaking,volcanisms,tsunami waves or sediment gravity flows in the study area,thus negating their possibility as triggering agents for the liquefaction.The complex nature and large size of the deformation structures imply extensive liquefaction near the sediment–water interface.In addition,the deformed beds comply with most of the criteria of typical seismites.In half-graben type Gondwana basins,such seismites can be linked to palaeoearthquakes,which signify the phases of syn-rift fault reactivation,basinal sagging and associated accommodation changes.
文摘Soft-sediment deformation structures（SSDS）have been the focus of attention for over 150 years.Existing unconstrained definitions allow one to classify a wide range of features under the umbrella phrase＂SSDS＂.As a consequence,a plethora of at least 120 different types of SSDS（e.g.,convolute bedding,slump folds,load casts,dish-and-pillar structures,pockmarks,raindrop imprints,explosive sandegravel craters,clastic injections,crushed and deformed stromatolites,etc.）have been recognized in strata ranging in age from Paleoproterozoic to the present time.The two factors that control the origin of SSDS are prelithification deformation and liquidization.A sedimentological compendium of 140 case studies of SSDS worldwide,which include 30 case studies of scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）,published during a period between 1863and 2017,has yielded at least 31 different origins.Earthquakes have remained the single most dominant cause of SSDS because of the prevailing＂seismite＂mindset.Selected advances on SSDS research are：（1）an experimental study that revealed a quantitative similarity between raindrop-impact cratering and asteroid-impact cratering;（2）IODP Expedition 308 in the Gulf of Mexico that documented extensive lateral extent（〉12 km）of mass-transport deposits（MTD）with SSDS that are unrelated to earthquakes;（3）contributions on documentation of pockmarks,on recognition of new structures,and on large-scale sediment deformation on Mars.Problems that hinder our understanding of SSDS still remain.They are：（1）vague definitions of the phrase＂soft-sediment deformation＂;（2）complex factors that govern the origin of SSDS;（3）omission of vital empirical data in documenting vertical changes in facies using measured sedimentological logs;（4）difficulties in distinguishing depositional processes from tectonic events;（5）a model-driven interpretation of SSDS（i.e.,earthquake being the singular cause）;（6）routine application of the genetic term＂seismites＂to the＂SSDS＂,thus undermining the basic tenet of process sedimentology（i.e.,separation of interpretation from observation）;（7）the absence of objective criteria to differentiate 21 triggering mechanisms of liquefaction and related SSDS;（8）application of the process concept＂high-density turbidity currents＂,a process that has never been documented in modern oceans;（9）application of the process concept＂sediment creep＂with a velocity connotation that cannot be inferred from the ancient record;（10）classification of pockmarks,which are hollow spaces（i.e.,without sediments）as SSDS,with their problematic origins by fluid expulsion,sediment degassing,fish activity,etc.;（11）application of the Earth＇s climate-change model;and most importantly,（12）an arbitrary distinction between depositional process and sediment deformation.Despite a profusion of literature on SSDS,our understanding of their origin remains muddled.A solution to the chronic SSDS problem is to utilize the robust core dataset from scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）with a constrained definition of SSDS.
