For the people of Masaka,Kabuga and Muyumbu in Rwanda,the daily commute often takes longer than it should.A stretch of just 10 km along the Prince House-Giporoso-Masaka road can take half an hour during peak hours.The...For the people of Masaka,Kabuga and Muyumbu in Rwanda,the daily commute often takes longer than it should.A stretch of just 10 km along the Prince House-Giporoso-Masaka road can take half an hour during peak hours.The narrow two-lane artery,clogged with long-haul trucks from the Rwanda-Tanzania border and commuter traffic,has long tested the patience of drivers and pedestrians alike.In May,a long-awaited announcement finally arrived.Rwanda’s Ministry of Infrastructure confirmed plans to expand the road from two lanes to four,adding a 1.2-km flyover at Giporoso-Remera and an underpass to keep tra"c flowing smoothly.The$60.5 million(Rwf86 billion)project will be fully funded by China,a testament to the deepening friendship and cooperation between the two nations.For many residents,it signals the end of years of lost time and daily frustration.展开更多
The ISO Annual Meeting 2025 was successfully held in Kigali,capital of the Republic of Rwanda,on October 6-10.The event included the opening and closing ceremonies,sessions with different themes,governance meetings an...The ISO Annual Meeting 2025 was successfully held in Kigali,capital of the Republic of Rwanda,on October 6-10.The event included the opening and closing ceremonies,sessions with different themes,governance meetings and social activities.It was hosted by Rwanda Standards Board(RSB),the ISO member,marking a historic first for East Africa.展开更多
BACKGROUND To prevent mother to child transmission(MTCT)of human immunodeficiency virus(HIV),sustained maternal viral load suppression(VLS)and early HIV testing among HIV exposed infants(HEI)is critical.AIM To investi...BACKGROUND To prevent mother to child transmission(MTCT)of human immunodeficiency virus(HIV),sustained maternal viral load suppression(VLS)and early HIV testing among HIV exposed infants(HEI)is critical.AIM To investigate maternal viral load results and infant HIV testing uptake at 6-weeks,and 9-months and 18-months in Rwanda.METHODS Between 2015 and 2022,VLS(<200 copies/mL)was measured among pregnant women living with HIV(WLHIV)from 38-healthcare facilities.Viral loads(VL)were measured at 6-months,12-months and 24-months,respectively.For maternal VL,the unit of analysis was visit-pair,and the pairs were created to define those with VL<200 copies/mL at two consecutive visits as having sustained VLS,persistent viremia(VL≥200 copies/mL at two consecutive visits),viral rebound(VL<200 copies/mL at prior visit only)and newly suppressed(VL<200 copies/mL at subsequent visit only).HEI were considered to have persistent HIV testing if they had all three HIV tests.Poisson regression models with generalized estimating equations were used to estimate the adjusted incidence rate ratio(aIRR)and 95%CI for factors associated with sustained VLS and persistent HIV testing.RESULTS A total of 1145 mother-infant pairs were analyzed.Infant HIV testing uptake at 6-weeks,9-months and 18-months was 1145(100.0%),1089(95.1%),1006(87.9%)respectively.Nine hundred ninety-nine HEI(87.3%)tested for HIV persistently.At 18-months,the incidence of HIV among HEI was 8(0.7%).Of 1145 mothers,1076(94.0%)had≥2 VL results making a total of 2010 visit-pairs(142-single;934-double visit-pairs).The incidence rate of sustained VLS,persistent viremia,viral rebound and new suppression were 91.0%,1.3%,3.6%and 4.0%respectively.Maternal disclosure of HIV status(aIRR=1.08,95%CI:1.02-1.14)was associated with increased likelihood of sustained VLS.Having peer support(aIRR=1.0595%CI:1.01-1.10)was associated with persistent HIV testing among HEI.CONCLUSION Sustained VLS is high among pregnant WLHIV in Rwanda.The low incidence of HIV among HEI may be attributed to high VLS levels.Targeted interventions,including enhanced HIV disclosure and peer support,are crucial for improving sustained VLS and increasing infant HIV testing uptake to reduce MTCT.展开更多
This study explores the impact of digital literacy on adopting e-government services in Rwanda, focusing on the Irembo platform. The study addresses key gaps in the literature related to the digital divide and applies...This study explores the impact of digital literacy on adopting e-government services in Rwanda, focusing on the Irembo platform. The study addresses key gaps in the literature related to the digital divide and applies the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations theory. Using data from 2022 and 2023, This study employs k-means and hierarchical clustering to analyze application attributes processed through Irembo, including types, states, and prices. The findings reveal that, despite advancements in digital service delivery, disparities in access and digital literacy persist, particularly in rural areas. The study concludes with recommendations for enhancing digital literacy initiatives and improving e-government platform usability, which is essential for promoting inclusive access to public services and supporting Rwanda’s socio-economic development goals.展开更多
Understanding the relationship between rainfall anomalies and large-scale systems is critical for driving adaptation and mitigation strategies in socioeconomic sectors. This study therefore aims primarily to investiga...Understanding the relationship between rainfall anomalies and large-scale systems is critical for driving adaptation and mitigation strategies in socioeconomic sectors. This study therefore aims primarily to investigate the correlation between rainfall anomalies in Rwanda during the months of September to December (SOND) with the occurrences of Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. The study is useful for early warning and forecasting of negative effects associated with extreme rainfall anomalies across the country, using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS), the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) reanalysis sea surface temperature and ERA5 reanalysis datasets, during the period of 1983-2021. Both empirical orthogonal function (EOF), correlation analysis and composite analysis were used to delineate variability, relationship and the related atmospheric circulation between Rwanda seasonal rainfall September to December (SOND) with Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The results for Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) for the reconstructed rainfall data set showed three modes. EOF-1, EOF-2 and EOF-3 with their total variance of 63.6%, 16.5% and 4.8%, Indian ocean dipole (IOD) events resulted to a strong positive correlation of rainfall anomalies and Dipole model index (DMI) (r = 0.42, p value = 0.001, DF = 37) significant at 95% confidence level. The composite analysis for the reanalysis dataset was carried out to show the circulation patterns during four different events correlated with September to December seasonal rainfall in Rwanda using T-test at 95% confidence level. Wind anomaly revealed that there was a convergence of south westerly winds and easterly wind over the study area during positive Indian Ocean Diploe (PIOD) and PIOD with El Nino concurrence event years. The finding of this study will contribute to the enhancement of SOND seasonal rainfall forecasting and the reduction of vulnerability during IOD (ENSO) event years.展开更多
INTRODUCTION: In 2012, Rwandan Government has declared family planning (FP) a national priority for poverty reduction and socioeconomic development. However, rural areas still contribute to higher fertility rates. OBJ...INTRODUCTION: In 2012, Rwandan Government has declared family planning (FP) a national priority for poverty reduction and socioeconomic development. However, rural areas still contribute to higher fertility rates. OBJECTIVE: To explore factors to influence FP uptake in rural families. METHODS: This study used mixed (quantitative and qualitative) methods consisted of two separate surveys. The first survey (quantitative-based cross-sectional design) determined FP use in households while the second survey (qualitative-based design) identified socio-cultural factors which hindered FP uptake in households. In total, 119 households with women in reproductive age (15 - 45) were targeted in rural areas in Western province, Karongi District. The data collected during door-to-door visits using paper-based-questionnaires and administered through interviews. A database mask was designed under OnaCollect, then processed in SPSS software. The results were presented in tables of frequencies, the difference between proportions assessed using Chi-Square-test, the difference between means assessed using t-tests, significance at p = or <0.05, confidence level at 0.95, and a margin error of 0.09. RESULTS: Socio-cultural norms influenced no use of contraception (32.8%) or only promoted natural methods (12.6%). Social norms were religious in origin (38.5%) where Christianity (91.8%) discouraged modern methods (viewed as killing children) but encouraged using natural methods, preferably abstinence (73.3%). Cultural norms (17.9%) influenced families to have many children as resources of wealth, evidence of productivity, and a way to decrease parents’ workloads including assisting mothers in home-based activities such as cooking, and assisting fathers in farming activities such as keeping cows, goats and pigs. Other attitudes included gender-based issues (2.5%) mainly due to spousal disapproval (men dominated in taking FP decisions in families), whereas other non-users of modern methods (28.2%) feared side-effects. This study was registered with IRB: CMHS/IRB/097/2019. CONCLUSION: Religious, social, and cultural norms affect FP in rural areas. In order to accelerate FP uptake, men and religious leaders should be targeted as key partners who influence women’s choices.展开更多
Uganda hosts refugees from neighboring countries including Rwanda.According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR),by the end of 2018,Uganda was the 3rd and 1st top refugee hosting country in the worl...Uganda hosts refugees from neighboring countries including Rwanda.According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR),by the end of 2018,Uganda was the 3rd and 1st top refugee hosting country in the world and Africa respectively.It hosted over 1.2 million refugees.In 2003,a tripartite agreement was signed to repatriate 25,000 Rwandan refugees.Only 850 of them accepted to return and many of them came back almost immediately to Uganda claiming insecurity and human rights violations in Rwanda.The Rwandan repatriation was not devoid of politics.It was influenced by political interests of various actors:the international community,regional geo-politics,Uganda,and Rwanda.This article analyzes the politics of repatriation of Rwandan refugees by focusing on politics at international and regional levels as well as in Uganda and Rwanda.展开更多
Comprehensive studies on how vegetative ecosystems respond to fluctuations in precipitation and temperature patterns are of great necessity for environmental risk assessment and land-use evaluations. The present study...Comprehensive studies on how vegetative ecosystems respond to fluctuations in precipitation and temperature patterns are of great necessity for environmental risk assessment and land-use evaluations. The present study examined the annual trends in vegetation greenness in Rwanda from 2000-2015 and assessed the relationship between these dynamics and climate factors by means of MODIS NDVI, air temperature, SOI and precipitation datasets. Mann Kendal trend test has been utilized to determine the direction and the rates of changes, while Spearman’s rank correlation method has been used to determine the levels of associability between NDVI changes and climatic variables. The results indicate that approximately 11.9% of the country’s vegetation has significantly improved (р < 0.05) from slight to significant improvement while 10.4% of the vegetative cover degraded from slight to severe degradation and an estimated 77.6% of the country’s vegetation cover has remained relatively stable. Much of improvement has been detected in the lowlands of eastern province whereas much of degradation has been highlighted in the western highlands of the Congo Nile ridge and Kigali city. There was a weak correlation between NDVI anomalies and SOI anomalies (rs = 0.36) while near surface air temperature was moderately correlated (rs = 0.47) with changes in Mean NDVI. Precipitation was more significantly associated (r = 0.84) with changes in vegetation health in low plains of Eastern Province (Nyagatare District in particular) than in the high altitude regions of the Congo Nile ridge. A strong positive correlation with precipitation was found in rain fed croplands;mosaic vegetation;mosaic forest or shrubland, herbaceous vegetation/grass-land savannah and sparse vegetation. Identification of degradation hotspots could significantly help the government and local authorities galvanize efforts and foster results driven policies of environmental protection and regeneration countrywide.展开更多
Trees play a key role in neighborhood landscapes, a belief that has been widely held for millennia in areas beyond Sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately, awareness of modern landscape architecture was almost absent in Rwa...Trees play a key role in neighborhood landscapes, a belief that has been widely held for millennia in areas beyond Sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately, awareness of modern landscape architecture was almost absent in Rwanda until the late 20th century. Today, houses with sur- rounding decorative and amenity plants ate a common feature in Rwanda＇s neighborhood landscapes and, as the villagization of settle- ments progresses, new kinds of landscapes are emerging. This paper explores neighborhood tree planting around human settlements in the country. Remote sensing, photogrammetry, photo interpretation, and plant surveys were the core methods used. The average tree cover frac- tion ranged between 10%-35%. As the result of what is hereafter referred to as the ＂luxury effect,＂ a discrete gradient was detected along which the diversity of ornamental and amenity trees increases with the socio-economic status of neighborhoods： from rural settlements to urban residences via a series of intermediate designs, in which different levels of human-built vegetated areas alternate with non-landscaped spaces. Showy, non-productive amenity trees tend to occur more in wealthy quarters of the inner core of cities while edible ornamentals and other productive neighborhood trees prevail in rural and spontaneous settle- ments. In general, the practice of landscape plant design, in spite of its constant improvement, is still striving to get established as a profession in the country.展开更多
Climate change and global warming are widely recognized as the most significant environmental dilemma the world is experiencing today. Recent studies have shown that the Earth’s surface air temperature has increased ...Climate change and global warming are widely recognized as the most significant environmental dilemma the world is experiencing today. Recent studies have shown that the Earth’s surface air temperature has increased by 0.6°C - 0.8°C during the 20th century, along with changes in the hydrological cycle. This has alerted the international community and brought great interest to climate scientists leading to several studies on climate trend detection at various scales. This paper examines the long-term modification of the near surface air temperature in Rwanda. Time series of near surface air temperature data for the period ranging from 1958 to 2010 for five weather observatories were collected from the Rwanda National Meteorological Service. Variations and trends of annual mean temperature time series were examined. The cumulative sum charts (CUSUM) and bootstrapping and the sequential version of the Mann Kendall Rank Statistic were used for the detection of abrupt changes. Regression analysis was performed for the trends and the Mann-Kendall Rank Statistic Test was used for the examination of their significance. Statistically significant abrupt changes and trends have been detected. The major change point in the annual mean temperature occurred around 1977-1979. The analysis of the annual mean temperature showed for all observatories a not very significant cooling trend during the period ranging from 1958 to 1977-1979 while a significant warming trend was furthermore observed for the period after the 1977-1979 where Kigali, the Capital of Rwanda, presented the highest values of the slope (0.0455/year) with high value of coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.6798), the Kendall’s tau statistic (M-K = 0.62), the Kendall Score (S = 328) with a two-sided p-value far less than the confidence level α of 5%). This is most likely explained by the growing population and increasing urbanization and industrialization the country has experienced, especially the Capital City Kigali, during the last decades.展开更多
A population’s health makes it possible to draw conclusions about a country’s general development level. In connection with local climatic changes, for example, we can assess how well a society adjusts to the new co...A population’s health makes it possible to draw conclusions about a country’s general development level. In connection with local climatic changes, for example, we can assess how well a society adjusts to the new conditions. To that effect, it has been observed during the last few years that global climate change can also affect human health in various ways. We can differentiate direct health impacts (e.g. extreme weather events, natural catastrophes caused by the weather) from indirect ones. However, the indirect consequences cause by far the greater damages to health. They are being spread increasingly by vectors (mosquitoes, ticks, etc.). Especially when a vector-carried infectious disease (e.g. malaria) migrates into areas where it is not endemic, considerable societal problems can result. The people living there would be immunologically unprepared.展开更多
Complex processes of sediment transport in a river impact on overall aquatic system and result in the productivity decrease of socio-economic development projects taking the river as a source of water. The present stu...Complex processes of sediment transport in a river impact on overall aquatic system and result in the productivity decrease of socio-economic development projects taking the river as a source of water. The present study was designed to estimate Sebeya river sediment load and assess its impacts on Lake Kivu, Gihira water treatment plant and various hydropower plants constructed in Sebeya catchment located in Western Province of Rwanda. Water samples were hand-collected from five different sampling points along Sebeya river during rainy and dry seasons. Laboratory analysis for turbidity, total suspended solids, sieve analysis for bed load materials and NPK content of water samples were conducted. The results revealed that the average turbidity was found to be high during rainy season compared to dry season. The same trend was found in total suspended solids concentrations. At all 5 sampling sites and during rainy season compared to dry season, the average mass flowrates of bed load materials were 7.84 and 2.96 kg/hr respectively. Sieve analysis results showed that all bed load sediments were mainly composed of high proportions of fine sand of more than 70% which adversely causes damages on hydropower turbines and the effect of high soil erosion rates on Gihira water treatment plant was traduced by high turbidity of raw water and excessive costs of reagents. At Sebeya outlet, nutrients load and high turbidity reduce significantly the aesthetic quality of Lake Kivu, having a harmful impact on recreation and tourism, aquatic life and affect the livelihoods of people living in the vicinity. Researchers recommend two options of reducing the amount of sediment load in Sebeya river: either to prevent soil erosion or to trap eroded sediment at the upstream of the hydropower and the water treatment plants. Assessing the sediment load fluctuations in Sebeya river is useful for water managers and planners to adjust operations accordingly at water treatment and hydropower plants.展开更多
Global atmospheric and oceanic perturbations and local weather variability induced factors highly alter the rainfall pattern of a region. Such factors result in extreme events of devastating nature to mankind. Rainfal...Global atmospheric and oceanic perturbations and local weather variability induced factors highly alter the rainfall pattern of a region. Such factors result in extreme events of devastating nature to mankind. Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) is one of the most commonly used tools in water resources engineering particularly to identify design storm event of various magnitude, duration and return period simultaneously. In light of this, the present study is aimed at developing rainfall IDF relationship for entire Rwanda based on selected twenty six (26) rainfall gauging stations. The gauging stations have been selected based on reliable rainfall records representing the different geographical locations varying from 14 to 83 years of record length. Daily annual maximum rainfall data has been disaggregated into sub-daily values such as 0.5 hr, 1 hr, 3 hr, 6 hr and 12 hr and fitted to the probability distributions. Quantile estimation has been made for different return periods and best fit distribution is identified based on least square standard error of estimate. At-site and regional IDF parameters were computed and subsequent curves were established for different return period. The moment ratio diagram (MRD) and L-moment ratio diagram (LMRD) methods have been used to fit frequency distributions and identify homogeneous regions for observed 24-hr maximum annual rainfall. The rainfall stations have been divided into five homogeneous rainfall regions for all 26 stations. The results of present analysis can be used as useful information for future water resources development planning purposes.展开更多
The impact of topography on heavy rainfall during two rain seasons was investigated in order to explain their mechanisms on rainfall distribution over Rwanda. Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF-ARW) model was used ...The impact of topography on heavy rainfall during two rain seasons was investigated in order to explain their mechanisms on rainfall distribution over Rwanda. Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF-ARW) model was used to study two historical cases of heavy rainfall which took place over Rwanda during two rain seasons, March to May (MAM) and September to December (SOND), from April 7 to 9, 2012 (for MAM) and from October 29 to 31, 2012 (during SOND). The control experiment was done with actual topography, whereas sensitivity experiment was carried out with topography reduced by half. Results show that rainfall distribution over Rwanda significantly changes when topography is reduced. The reduction in topography leads to a decrease in rainfall amounts in both MAM and SOND seasons, with varying magnitudes. This reveals the importance of orography in determining rainfall amounts and distribution over the region. The accumulated rainfall amount from WRF underestimate or overestimate rain gauge stations data by region and by season, but there is good agreement especially in altitude below 1490 m and above 1554 m during April and October respectively. The results may motivate modelling carters to further improve parameterization schemes in the mountainous regions.展开更多
Background: Scant data on upper gastrointestinal cancers in Rwanda exist to guide potential prevention efforts. We evaluated the epidemiological, clinical and histopathological data among patients with gastric and eso...Background: Scant data on upper gastrointestinal cancers in Rwanda exist to guide potential prevention efforts. We evaluated the epidemiological, clinical and histopathological data among patients with gastric and esophageal tumors at a tertiary Referral Hospital in Rwanda. Methodology: We performed a retrospective review of histologically-confirmed esophageal and gastric cancers in adults age ≥ 18 yrs. old presenting to a university teaching hospital (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Butare) from 2014-2019. Variables included age at diagnosis, sex, clinical presentation, tumor location and histopathological type. Results: There were 149 upper gastrointestinal cancers, of which 137 (92%) were gastric and 12 (8%) were esophageal. Gastric cancer patients had a mean age at presentation of 56.9 ± 12.3 years (range 21 - 87). Presenting symptoms were epigastric pain (78.8%), weight loss (53.3%), post-prandial vomiting (52.6%), early satiety (29.9%), epigastric mass (24.8%), hematemesis (19.7%) and melena (16.8%). The location was antrum 50.3%, corpus 21.8%, fundus 8%, and cardia 8%. Tumor type was adenocarcinoma in 94.1%. Helicobacter pylori infection was present in 108 (78.8%). Esophageal cancer patients had a mean age of 54.4 ± 9.5 years (range 35 - 72). Presenting symptoms were dysphagia (100%) and weight loss (83%). The most common site was lower third esophagus (9/12), and adenocarcinoma cancer subtype accounted for 5/12 (41.6%) cases. Conclusion: Gastric adenocarcinoma was the most commonly diagnosed upper gastrointestinal cancers and was associated with a high prevalence of H. pylori infection. This study lays the foundation for future work to improve cancer outcomes in Rwanda.展开更多
Nowadays, rainwater harvesting (RWH) technology is increasingly adopted as a strategic pathway for reducing poverty in rural drought prone areas for enhancing agricultural productivity and boosting farm income. The ai...Nowadays, rainwater harvesting (RWH) technology is increasingly adopted as a strategic pathway for reducing poverty in rural drought prone areas for enhancing agricultural productivity and boosting farm income. The aim of this study is to assess the level of adoption and the impacts of RWH ponds on farm income in Ntarama sector of Bugesera District in Eastern Province of Rwanda. Fifteen farm ponds were visited and the level at which households adopted RWH ponds, their impact on farm income and performance in storing water were assessed. Interviews and questionnaires methods were used to farm ponds beneficiaries and the storage capacity of farm ponds was calculated to ensure that they meet irrigation water demand. Then, Microsoft excel was used as a data analysis tool. The results show that 42.5% of households have adopted RWH ponds and the adoption level of RWH ponds fails due to the lack of training about the role and use of RWH ponds before their implementation. Beside this the low level of public involvement during the site selection for ponds associated with social conflicts among water users was observed. However, it is further revealed that the use of RWH ponds positively impacts on agricultural income on 1/4 hectare per year by about 2,325,000 RWF (3100USD). The studied portion of area can bear 222 ponds of 120 m<sup>3</sup> each if all the rain is harvested throughout the year instead of being three ponds. Furthermore, we found that the quantity of rainwater harvested of 328.5 m<sup>3</sup> as a total of the 3 ponds was still too less to meet irrigation water demand. As negative impacts, the RWH technology can cause dangerous effects such as social conflicts, breeding site for mosquitoes, water related diseases, accidents and others with a level of severity of 32%, 24%, 20%, 16% and 8%, respectively. This happens when the RWH ponds are not properly managed.展开更多
The aim of this study is to assess the impact of industrial agriculture on the environment in Rwanda taking Mulindi tea plantations as a case study.Tea is one of the three major crops of Rwandan industrial agriculture...The aim of this study is to assess the impact of industrial agriculture on the environment in Rwanda taking Mulindi tea plantations as a case study.Tea is one of the three major crops of Rwandan industrial agriculture apart from coffee and pyrethrum.The results of this study show clearly the impact of tea plantations on the environment in Rwandan in all aspects.Soil samples collected in three zones展开更多
Climate change is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is,in addition to natural climate variability,observed over a period of considerable...Climate change is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is,in addition to natural climate variability,observed over a period of considerable length.Rwanda shares with the world a big challenge of climate change,because climate change is not only an environmental issue,but also an economic issue,a social issue,a security issue and, above all,a moral issue.This paper reviews the origins of climate change and its impacts in Rwanda as they manifest themselves across various sectors展开更多
Keya Hydropower Plant (HPP) is a run-off-river plant which can be an effective green solution contributing to the current energy demand in Rwanda but a huge amount of sediment contained in water of Sebeya River on whi...Keya Hydropower Plant (HPP) is a run-off-river plant which can be an effective green solution contributing to the current energy demand in Rwanda but a huge amount of sediment contained in water of Sebeya River on which this plant is built results in loss of the plant capacity. The aim of this study was to conduct the performance evaluation of Keya HPP sediment basin located in Rubavu district, western province of Rwanda. Specifically, laboratory tests of sediment, efficiency of the basin, assessment of sedimentation problems on HPP operations, proposition of technical options for increasing the removal efficiency of sediment basin and other options for reducing sediment at the source of generation were performed using different methods including interviews and questioning Keya hydropower technicians, field sediment sampling followed by hydrometer and Particle Size Distribution (PSD) analysis. Analysis was made in University of Rwanda (UR) Soil Mechanics laboratory. MICROSOFT EXCEL and Graphisoft Archicad 18 softwares with Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) soil classification were used as data analysis tools. Results showed that the overall efficiency removal of the diversion headwork was 85%. However, after comparing sediment concentration at the inlet and outlet of the sediment basin, it was found that the basin removed only 22% of sediment from diverted water toward the turbine. This means that 78% of sediment escapes the basin to cause erosion on the turbine components resulting in reduction of the plant capacity from 2.2 MW to 900 KW. To ensure sustainable solution to sediment issues in Keya HPP, an upstream sediment trap reservoir is proposed. It is recommended also that Rwanda Energy Group (REG) should work together with Rwanda Natural Resource Authority (RNRA) at national level to ensure sustainable development of erosion control in the Sebeya catchment area.展开更多
The aim of this study undertaken at Lake Muhazi in Rwanda was to determine and analyze the major elements present in water.The presence of many major elements(Al,As,Ba,C,Ca,Cu,Fe,H^(+),K,Mg,Mn,N,P,S,Si,and Zn)was dete...The aim of this study undertaken at Lake Muhazi in Rwanda was to determine and analyze the major elements present in water.The presence of many major elements(Al,As,Ba,C,Ca,Cu,Fe,H^(+),K,Mg,Mn,N,P,S,Si,and Zn)was determined by spectroscopic technique.The concentrations of the elements were measured in water samples taken from three different locations of the lake from May to August 2008.The lake is polluted by water flow from mountain sides surrounding the lake.Other causes of pollution could be the use of agrochemicals in the sugar land,which surrounds the lake,and human activities near the lake.Finally,we proposed the strategies that can be applied in order to ensure good conservation of the environment and to prevent augmentation of heavy materials into the lake.展开更多
文摘For the people of Masaka,Kabuga and Muyumbu in Rwanda,the daily commute often takes longer than it should.A stretch of just 10 km along the Prince House-Giporoso-Masaka road can take half an hour during peak hours.The narrow two-lane artery,clogged with long-haul trucks from the Rwanda-Tanzania border and commuter traffic,has long tested the patience of drivers and pedestrians alike.In May,a long-awaited announcement finally arrived.Rwanda’s Ministry of Infrastructure confirmed plans to expand the road from two lanes to four,adding a 1.2-km flyover at Giporoso-Remera and an underpass to keep tra"c flowing smoothly.The$60.5 million(Rwf86 billion)project will be fully funded by China,a testament to the deepening friendship and cooperation between the two nations.For many residents,it signals the end of years of lost time and daily frustration.
文摘The ISO Annual Meeting 2025 was successfully held in Kigali,capital of the Republic of Rwanda,on October 6-10.The event included the opening and closing ceremonies,sessions with different themes,governance meetings and social activities.It was hosted by Rwanda Standards Board(RSB),the ISO member,marking a historic first for East Africa.
文摘BACKGROUND To prevent mother to child transmission(MTCT)of human immunodeficiency virus(HIV),sustained maternal viral load suppression(VLS)and early HIV testing among HIV exposed infants(HEI)is critical.AIM To investigate maternal viral load results and infant HIV testing uptake at 6-weeks,and 9-months and 18-months in Rwanda.METHODS Between 2015 and 2022,VLS(<200 copies/mL)was measured among pregnant women living with HIV(WLHIV)from 38-healthcare facilities.Viral loads(VL)were measured at 6-months,12-months and 24-months,respectively.For maternal VL,the unit of analysis was visit-pair,and the pairs were created to define those with VL<200 copies/mL at two consecutive visits as having sustained VLS,persistent viremia(VL≥200 copies/mL at two consecutive visits),viral rebound(VL<200 copies/mL at prior visit only)and newly suppressed(VL<200 copies/mL at subsequent visit only).HEI were considered to have persistent HIV testing if they had all three HIV tests.Poisson regression models with generalized estimating equations were used to estimate the adjusted incidence rate ratio(aIRR)and 95%CI for factors associated with sustained VLS and persistent HIV testing.RESULTS A total of 1145 mother-infant pairs were analyzed.Infant HIV testing uptake at 6-weeks,9-months and 18-months was 1145(100.0%),1089(95.1%),1006(87.9%)respectively.Nine hundred ninety-nine HEI(87.3%)tested for HIV persistently.At 18-months,the incidence of HIV among HEI was 8(0.7%).Of 1145 mothers,1076(94.0%)had≥2 VL results making a total of 2010 visit-pairs(142-single;934-double visit-pairs).The incidence rate of sustained VLS,persistent viremia,viral rebound and new suppression were 91.0%,1.3%,3.6%and 4.0%respectively.Maternal disclosure of HIV status(aIRR=1.08,95%CI:1.02-1.14)was associated with increased likelihood of sustained VLS.Having peer support(aIRR=1.0595%CI:1.01-1.10)was associated with persistent HIV testing among HEI.CONCLUSION Sustained VLS is high among pregnant WLHIV in Rwanda.The low incidence of HIV among HEI may be attributed to high VLS levels.Targeted interventions,including enhanced HIV disclosure and peer support,are crucial for improving sustained VLS and increasing infant HIV testing uptake to reduce MTCT.
文摘This study explores the impact of digital literacy on adopting e-government services in Rwanda, focusing on the Irembo platform. The study addresses key gaps in the literature related to the digital divide and applies the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations theory. Using data from 2022 and 2023, This study employs k-means and hierarchical clustering to analyze application attributes processed through Irembo, including types, states, and prices. The findings reveal that, despite advancements in digital service delivery, disparities in access and digital literacy persist, particularly in rural areas. The study concludes with recommendations for enhancing digital literacy initiatives and improving e-government platform usability, which is essential for promoting inclusive access to public services and supporting Rwanda’s socio-economic development goals.
文摘Understanding the relationship between rainfall anomalies and large-scale systems is critical for driving adaptation and mitigation strategies in socioeconomic sectors. This study therefore aims primarily to investigate the correlation between rainfall anomalies in Rwanda during the months of September to December (SOND) with the occurrences of Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. The study is useful for early warning and forecasting of negative effects associated with extreme rainfall anomalies across the country, using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS), the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) reanalysis sea surface temperature and ERA5 reanalysis datasets, during the period of 1983-2021. Both empirical orthogonal function (EOF), correlation analysis and composite analysis were used to delineate variability, relationship and the related atmospheric circulation between Rwanda seasonal rainfall September to December (SOND) with Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The results for Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) for the reconstructed rainfall data set showed three modes. EOF-1, EOF-2 and EOF-3 with their total variance of 63.6%, 16.5% and 4.8%, Indian ocean dipole (IOD) events resulted to a strong positive correlation of rainfall anomalies and Dipole model index (DMI) (r = 0.42, p value = 0.001, DF = 37) significant at 95% confidence level. The composite analysis for the reanalysis dataset was carried out to show the circulation patterns during four different events correlated with September to December seasonal rainfall in Rwanda using T-test at 95% confidence level. Wind anomaly revealed that there was a convergence of south westerly winds and easterly wind over the study area during positive Indian Ocean Diploe (PIOD) and PIOD with El Nino concurrence event years. The finding of this study will contribute to the enhancement of SOND seasonal rainfall forecasting and the reduction of vulnerability during IOD (ENSO) event years.
文摘INTRODUCTION: In 2012, Rwandan Government has declared family planning (FP) a national priority for poverty reduction and socioeconomic development. However, rural areas still contribute to higher fertility rates. OBJECTIVE: To explore factors to influence FP uptake in rural families. METHODS: This study used mixed (quantitative and qualitative) methods consisted of two separate surveys. The first survey (quantitative-based cross-sectional design) determined FP use in households while the second survey (qualitative-based design) identified socio-cultural factors which hindered FP uptake in households. In total, 119 households with women in reproductive age (15 - 45) were targeted in rural areas in Western province, Karongi District. The data collected during door-to-door visits using paper-based-questionnaires and administered through interviews. A database mask was designed under OnaCollect, then processed in SPSS software. The results were presented in tables of frequencies, the difference between proportions assessed using Chi-Square-test, the difference between means assessed using t-tests, significance at p = or <0.05, confidence level at 0.95, and a margin error of 0.09. RESULTS: Socio-cultural norms influenced no use of contraception (32.8%) or only promoted natural methods (12.6%). Social norms were religious in origin (38.5%) where Christianity (91.8%) discouraged modern methods (viewed as killing children) but encouraged using natural methods, preferably abstinence (73.3%). Cultural norms (17.9%) influenced families to have many children as resources of wealth, evidence of productivity, and a way to decrease parents’ workloads including assisting mothers in home-based activities such as cooking, and assisting fathers in farming activities such as keeping cows, goats and pigs. Other attitudes included gender-based issues (2.5%) mainly due to spousal disapproval (men dominated in taking FP decisions in families), whereas other non-users of modern methods (28.2%) feared side-effects. This study was registered with IRB: CMHS/IRB/097/2019. CONCLUSION: Religious, social, and cultural norms affect FP in rural areas. In order to accelerate FP uptake, men and religious leaders should be targeted as key partners who influence women’s choices.
文摘Uganda hosts refugees from neighboring countries including Rwanda.According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR),by the end of 2018,Uganda was the 3rd and 1st top refugee hosting country in the world and Africa respectively.It hosted over 1.2 million refugees.In 2003,a tripartite agreement was signed to repatriate 25,000 Rwandan refugees.Only 850 of them accepted to return and many of them came back almost immediately to Uganda claiming insecurity and human rights violations in Rwanda.The Rwandan repatriation was not devoid of politics.It was influenced by political interests of various actors:the international community,regional geo-politics,Uganda,and Rwanda.This article analyzes the politics of repatriation of Rwandan refugees by focusing on politics at international and regional levels as well as in Uganda and Rwanda.
文摘Comprehensive studies on how vegetative ecosystems respond to fluctuations in precipitation and temperature patterns are of great necessity for environmental risk assessment and land-use evaluations. The present study examined the annual trends in vegetation greenness in Rwanda from 2000-2015 and assessed the relationship between these dynamics and climate factors by means of MODIS NDVI, air temperature, SOI and precipitation datasets. Mann Kendal trend test has been utilized to determine the direction and the rates of changes, while Spearman’s rank correlation method has been used to determine the levels of associability between NDVI changes and climatic variables. The results indicate that approximately 11.9% of the country’s vegetation has significantly improved (р < 0.05) from slight to significant improvement while 10.4% of the vegetative cover degraded from slight to severe degradation and an estimated 77.6% of the country’s vegetation cover has remained relatively stable. Much of improvement has been detected in the lowlands of eastern province whereas much of degradation has been highlighted in the western highlands of the Congo Nile ridge and Kigali city. There was a weak correlation between NDVI anomalies and SOI anomalies (rs = 0.36) while near surface air temperature was moderately correlated (rs = 0.47) with changes in Mean NDVI. Precipitation was more significantly associated (r = 0.84) with changes in vegetation health in low plains of Eastern Province (Nyagatare District in particular) than in the high altitude regions of the Congo Nile ridge. A strong positive correlation with precipitation was found in rain fed croplands;mosaic vegetation;mosaic forest or shrubland, herbaceous vegetation/grass-land savannah and sparse vegetation. Identification of degradation hotspots could significantly help the government and local authorities galvanize efforts and foster results driven policies of environmental protection and regeneration countrywide.
基金financial support from the Chinese Scholarship Council and Student Financing Agency for Rwanda, as part of the MSc programme(2009-2011) in the School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, People’s Republic of China
文摘Trees play a key role in neighborhood landscapes, a belief that has been widely held for millennia in areas beyond Sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately, awareness of modern landscape architecture was almost absent in Rwanda until the late 20th century. Today, houses with sur- rounding decorative and amenity plants ate a common feature in Rwanda＇s neighborhood landscapes and, as the villagization of settle- ments progresses, new kinds of landscapes are emerging. This paper explores neighborhood tree planting around human settlements in the country. Remote sensing, photogrammetry, photo interpretation, and plant surveys were the core methods used. The average tree cover frac- tion ranged between 10%-35%. As the result of what is hereafter referred to as the ＂luxury effect,＂ a discrete gradient was detected along which the diversity of ornamental and amenity trees increases with the socio-economic status of neighborhoods： from rural settlements to urban residences via a series of intermediate designs, in which different levels of human-built vegetated areas alternate with non-landscaped spaces. Showy, non-productive amenity trees tend to occur more in wealthy quarters of the inner core of cities while edible ornamentals and other productive neighborhood trees prevail in rural and spontaneous settle- ments. In general, the practice of landscape plant design, in spite of its constant improvement, is still striving to get established as a profession in the country.
文摘Climate change and global warming are widely recognized as the most significant environmental dilemma the world is experiencing today. Recent studies have shown that the Earth’s surface air temperature has increased by 0.6°C - 0.8°C during the 20th century, along with changes in the hydrological cycle. This has alerted the international community and brought great interest to climate scientists leading to several studies on climate trend detection at various scales. This paper examines the long-term modification of the near surface air temperature in Rwanda. Time series of near surface air temperature data for the period ranging from 1958 to 2010 for five weather observatories were collected from the Rwanda National Meteorological Service. Variations and trends of annual mean temperature time series were examined. The cumulative sum charts (CUSUM) and bootstrapping and the sequential version of the Mann Kendall Rank Statistic were used for the detection of abrupt changes. Regression analysis was performed for the trends and the Mann-Kendall Rank Statistic Test was used for the examination of their significance. Statistically significant abrupt changes and trends have been detected. The major change point in the annual mean temperature occurred around 1977-1979. The analysis of the annual mean temperature showed for all observatories a not very significant cooling trend during the period ranging from 1958 to 1977-1979 while a significant warming trend was furthermore observed for the period after the 1977-1979 where Kigali, the Capital of Rwanda, presented the highest values of the slope (0.0455/year) with high value of coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.6798), the Kendall’s tau statistic (M-K = 0.62), the Kendall Score (S = 328) with a two-sided p-value far less than the confidence level α of 5%). This is most likely explained by the growing population and increasing urbanization and industrialization the country has experienced, especially the Capital City Kigali, during the last decades.
文摘A population’s health makes it possible to draw conclusions about a country’s general development level. In connection with local climatic changes, for example, we can assess how well a society adjusts to the new conditions. To that effect, it has been observed during the last few years that global climate change can also affect human health in various ways. We can differentiate direct health impacts (e.g. extreme weather events, natural catastrophes caused by the weather) from indirect ones. However, the indirect consequences cause by far the greater damages to health. They are being spread increasingly by vectors (mosquitoes, ticks, etc.). Especially when a vector-carried infectious disease (e.g. malaria) migrates into areas where it is not endemic, considerable societal problems can result. The people living there would be immunologically unprepared.
文摘Complex processes of sediment transport in a river impact on overall aquatic system and result in the productivity decrease of socio-economic development projects taking the river as a source of water. The present study was designed to estimate Sebeya river sediment load and assess its impacts on Lake Kivu, Gihira water treatment plant and various hydropower plants constructed in Sebeya catchment located in Western Province of Rwanda. Water samples were hand-collected from five different sampling points along Sebeya river during rainy and dry seasons. Laboratory analysis for turbidity, total suspended solids, sieve analysis for bed load materials and NPK content of water samples were conducted. The results revealed that the average turbidity was found to be high during rainy season compared to dry season. The same trend was found in total suspended solids concentrations. At all 5 sampling sites and during rainy season compared to dry season, the average mass flowrates of bed load materials were 7.84 and 2.96 kg/hr respectively. Sieve analysis results showed that all bed load sediments were mainly composed of high proportions of fine sand of more than 70% which adversely causes damages on hydropower turbines and the effect of high soil erosion rates on Gihira water treatment plant was traduced by high turbidity of raw water and excessive costs of reagents. At Sebeya outlet, nutrients load and high turbidity reduce significantly the aesthetic quality of Lake Kivu, having a harmful impact on recreation and tourism, aquatic life and affect the livelihoods of people living in the vicinity. Researchers recommend two options of reducing the amount of sediment load in Sebeya river: either to prevent soil erosion or to trap eroded sediment at the upstream of the hydropower and the water treatment plants. Assessing the sediment load fluctuations in Sebeya river is useful for water managers and planners to adjust operations accordingly at water treatment and hydropower plants.
文摘Global atmospheric and oceanic perturbations and local weather variability induced factors highly alter the rainfall pattern of a region. Such factors result in extreme events of devastating nature to mankind. Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) is one of the most commonly used tools in water resources engineering particularly to identify design storm event of various magnitude, duration and return period simultaneously. In light of this, the present study is aimed at developing rainfall IDF relationship for entire Rwanda based on selected twenty six (26) rainfall gauging stations. The gauging stations have been selected based on reliable rainfall records representing the different geographical locations varying from 14 to 83 years of record length. Daily annual maximum rainfall data has been disaggregated into sub-daily values such as 0.5 hr, 1 hr, 3 hr, 6 hr and 12 hr and fitted to the probability distributions. Quantile estimation has been made for different return periods and best fit distribution is identified based on least square standard error of estimate. At-site and regional IDF parameters were computed and subsequent curves were established for different return period. The moment ratio diagram (MRD) and L-moment ratio diagram (LMRD) methods have been used to fit frequency distributions and identify homogeneous regions for observed 24-hr maximum annual rainfall. The rainfall stations have been divided into five homogeneous rainfall regions for all 26 stations. The results of present analysis can be used as useful information for future water resources development planning purposes.
文摘The impact of topography on heavy rainfall during two rain seasons was investigated in order to explain their mechanisms on rainfall distribution over Rwanda. Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF-ARW) model was used to study two historical cases of heavy rainfall which took place over Rwanda during two rain seasons, March to May (MAM) and September to December (SOND), from April 7 to 9, 2012 (for MAM) and from October 29 to 31, 2012 (during SOND). The control experiment was done with actual topography, whereas sensitivity experiment was carried out with topography reduced by half. Results show that rainfall distribution over Rwanda significantly changes when topography is reduced. The reduction in topography leads to a decrease in rainfall amounts in both MAM and SOND seasons, with varying magnitudes. This reveals the importance of orography in determining rainfall amounts and distribution over the region. The accumulated rainfall amount from WRF underestimate or overestimate rain gauge stations data by region and by season, but there is good agreement especially in altitude below 1490 m and above 1554 m during April and October respectively. The results may motivate modelling carters to further improve parameterization schemes in the mountainous regions.
文摘Background: Scant data on upper gastrointestinal cancers in Rwanda exist to guide potential prevention efforts. We evaluated the epidemiological, clinical and histopathological data among patients with gastric and esophageal tumors at a tertiary Referral Hospital in Rwanda. Methodology: We performed a retrospective review of histologically-confirmed esophageal and gastric cancers in adults age ≥ 18 yrs. old presenting to a university teaching hospital (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Butare) from 2014-2019. Variables included age at diagnosis, sex, clinical presentation, tumor location and histopathological type. Results: There were 149 upper gastrointestinal cancers, of which 137 (92%) were gastric and 12 (8%) were esophageal. Gastric cancer patients had a mean age at presentation of 56.9 ± 12.3 years (range 21 - 87). Presenting symptoms were epigastric pain (78.8%), weight loss (53.3%), post-prandial vomiting (52.6%), early satiety (29.9%), epigastric mass (24.8%), hematemesis (19.7%) and melena (16.8%). The location was antrum 50.3%, corpus 21.8%, fundus 8%, and cardia 8%. Tumor type was adenocarcinoma in 94.1%. Helicobacter pylori infection was present in 108 (78.8%). Esophageal cancer patients had a mean age of 54.4 ± 9.5 years (range 35 - 72). Presenting symptoms were dysphagia (100%) and weight loss (83%). The most common site was lower third esophagus (9/12), and adenocarcinoma cancer subtype accounted for 5/12 (41.6%) cases. Conclusion: Gastric adenocarcinoma was the most commonly diagnosed upper gastrointestinal cancers and was associated with a high prevalence of H. pylori infection. This study lays the foundation for future work to improve cancer outcomes in Rwanda.
文摘Nowadays, rainwater harvesting (RWH) technology is increasingly adopted as a strategic pathway for reducing poverty in rural drought prone areas for enhancing agricultural productivity and boosting farm income. The aim of this study is to assess the level of adoption and the impacts of RWH ponds on farm income in Ntarama sector of Bugesera District in Eastern Province of Rwanda. Fifteen farm ponds were visited and the level at which households adopted RWH ponds, their impact on farm income and performance in storing water were assessed. Interviews and questionnaires methods were used to farm ponds beneficiaries and the storage capacity of farm ponds was calculated to ensure that they meet irrigation water demand. Then, Microsoft excel was used as a data analysis tool. The results show that 42.5% of households have adopted RWH ponds and the adoption level of RWH ponds fails due to the lack of training about the role and use of RWH ponds before their implementation. Beside this the low level of public involvement during the site selection for ponds associated with social conflicts among water users was observed. However, it is further revealed that the use of RWH ponds positively impacts on agricultural income on 1/4 hectare per year by about 2,325,000 RWF (3100USD). The studied portion of area can bear 222 ponds of 120 m<sup>3</sup> each if all the rain is harvested throughout the year instead of being three ponds. Furthermore, we found that the quantity of rainwater harvested of 328.5 m<sup>3</sup> as a total of the 3 ponds was still too less to meet irrigation water demand. As negative impacts, the RWH technology can cause dangerous effects such as social conflicts, breeding site for mosquitoes, water related diseases, accidents and others with a level of severity of 32%, 24%, 20%, 16% and 8%, respectively. This happens when the RWH ponds are not properly managed.
文摘The aim of this study is to assess the impact of industrial agriculture on the environment in Rwanda taking Mulindi tea plantations as a case study.Tea is one of the three major crops of Rwandan industrial agriculture apart from coffee and pyrethrum.The results of this study show clearly the impact of tea plantations on the environment in Rwandan in all aspects.Soil samples collected in three zones
文摘Climate change is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is,in addition to natural climate variability,observed over a period of considerable length.Rwanda shares with the world a big challenge of climate change,because climate change is not only an environmental issue,but also an economic issue,a social issue,a security issue and, above all,a moral issue.This paper reviews the origins of climate change and its impacts in Rwanda as they manifest themselves across various sectors
文摘Keya Hydropower Plant (HPP) is a run-off-river plant which can be an effective green solution contributing to the current energy demand in Rwanda but a huge amount of sediment contained in water of Sebeya River on which this plant is built results in loss of the plant capacity. The aim of this study was to conduct the performance evaluation of Keya HPP sediment basin located in Rubavu district, western province of Rwanda. Specifically, laboratory tests of sediment, efficiency of the basin, assessment of sedimentation problems on HPP operations, proposition of technical options for increasing the removal efficiency of sediment basin and other options for reducing sediment at the source of generation were performed using different methods including interviews and questioning Keya hydropower technicians, field sediment sampling followed by hydrometer and Particle Size Distribution (PSD) analysis. Analysis was made in University of Rwanda (UR) Soil Mechanics laboratory. MICROSOFT EXCEL and Graphisoft Archicad 18 softwares with Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) soil classification were used as data analysis tools. Results showed that the overall efficiency removal of the diversion headwork was 85%. However, after comparing sediment concentration at the inlet and outlet of the sediment basin, it was found that the basin removed only 22% of sediment from diverted water toward the turbine. This means that 78% of sediment escapes the basin to cause erosion on the turbine components resulting in reduction of the plant capacity from 2.2 MW to 900 KW. To ensure sustainable solution to sediment issues in Keya HPP, an upstream sediment trap reservoir is proposed. It is recommended also that Rwanda Energy Group (REG) should work together with Rwanda Natural Resource Authority (RNRA) at national level to ensure sustainable development of erosion control in the Sebeya catchment area.
文摘The aim of this study undertaken at Lake Muhazi in Rwanda was to determine and analyze the major elements present in water.The presence of many major elements(Al,As,Ba,C,Ca,Cu,Fe,H^(+),K,Mg,Mn,N,P,S,Si,and Zn)was determined by spectroscopic technique.The concentrations of the elements were measured in water samples taken from three different locations of the lake from May to August 2008.The lake is polluted by water flow from mountain sides surrounding the lake.Other causes of pollution could be the use of agrochemicals in the sugar land,which surrounds the lake,and human activities near the lake.Finally,we proposed the strategies that can be applied in order to ensure good conservation of the environment and to prevent augmentation of heavy materials into the lake.
