Rainwater harvesting?provides an important alternative source of water in household buildings which?increases water security in urban areas. However, high energy cost consumption by the rainwater harvesting systems re...Rainwater harvesting?provides an important alternative source of water in household buildings which?increases water security in urban areas. However, high energy cost consumption by the rainwater harvesting systems results in higher management costs which may derail the investment viability of these systems in households. This prompted this study to establish ways through which the management cost of rainwater harvesting systems can be minimized in household buildings. A survey of 200 households from Greenspan, Komarock, Utawala, Kileleshwa and Runda in Nairobi?County was undertaken as?well?as?data?on?the?type?of?rainwater harvesting?systems, their operation and maintenance cost collected using observation checklists and questionnaires. The findings indicated that rainwater harvesting typologies 1, 2, 4 and 5 had their water pumped from first-level storage to the second-level storage then supplied to usage points by gravity. Whereas, typologies 3 and 6 had their water moved manually and by gravity respectively. On annual operation cost, 100% of households with typology 3 and 6 spent no money whereas, 100%, 75% and 70.6% with typology 4 and 5, 1 and 2 respectively spent Ksh. 1?-?5000. On annual maintenance cost, 100%, 93.7% and 77.8% of households with typology 5 and 6, 3 and 4 respectively spent Ksh. 1?-?5000 while 25% and 22.2% of households with typology 1 and 2 respectively spent Ksh. 5000?-?10,000. Advanced typology 6 with one-level storage point supplies rainwater to all parts of the household by gravity. This eliminates operation costs spent on energy consumption due to pumping of water,?thus minimizing overall management cost spent on rainwater harvesting systems in household buildings.展开更多
Hybridization and introgression have long obscured relationships within Adenophora and its relatives,complicating generic delimitation.Leveraging deep genome skimming(DGS)data,we generated a large dataset,including th...Hybridization and introgression have long obscured relationships within Adenophora and its relatives,complicating generic delimitation.Leveraging deep genome skimming(DGS)data,we generated a large dataset,including thousands of single-copy nuclear(SCN)genes and plastomes,to untangle this reticulate history.Specifically,9.89 terabytes(TB)of DGS data from 165 samples—representing 48 species and 13 subspecies of Adenophora(out of ca.72 species)plus 24 outgroup species—yielded 1506 SCN genes and 77 plastid coding sequences.Tree-like phylogenies inferred with both coalescent-and concatenation-based methods revealed pronounced gene tree heterogeneity.Subsequent analysis showed that incomplete lineage sorting contributed minimally to this discordance;instead,hybridization and introgression were the primary drivers of early diversification.Integrating phylogenomic,morphological,and geographic evidence,we propose a revised generic framework for this group.Adenophora is expanded to include Campanula delavayi and the Korean Peninsula endemic genus Hanabusaya.We also recommend reinstating Hyssaria as a distinct Central Asian genus and introducing two new genera,Boreoasia and Rosomala.展开更多
Integrative data from plastid and nuclear loci are increasingly utilized to resolve species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships within major angiosperm clades.Debregeasia(Urticaceae),an economically important ge...Integrative data from plastid and nuclear loci are increasingly utilized to resolve species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships within major angiosperm clades.Debregeasia(Urticaceae),an economically important genus,presents challenges in species delimitation due to its overlapping morphological traits and unstable taxonomic assignments.Here,we analyzed 14 morphological traits and generated 12 data matrices from the plastomes and nrDNA using genome skimming from the nine recognized morphospecies to clarify species boundaries and assess barcode performance in Debregeasia.We also used a universal set of 353 nuclear genes to explore reticulate evolution and biogeographic history of Debregeasia.Plastomes of Debregeasia exhibited the typical quadripartite structure with conserved gene content and marginal independent variations in the SC/IR boundary at inter-and intra-specific levels.Three Debregeasia species were non-monophyletic and could not be discerned by any barcode;however,ultra-barcodes identified the remaining six(67%),outperforming standard barcodes(56%).Our phylogenetic analyses placed Debregeasia wallichiana outside the genus and suggested six monophyletic clades in Debregeasia,although the placement between Debregeasia hekouensis and Debregeasia libera varied.There was extensive trait overlap in key morphologically diagnostic characters,with reticulation analysis showing potentially pervasive hybridization,likely influenced by speciation patterns and overlaps between species ranges.We inferred that Debregeasia crown diversification began at ca.12.82 Ma(95%HPD:11.54-14.63 Ma)in the mid-Miocene within Australia,followed by vicariance and later longdistance dispersal,mainly out of southern China.Our findings highlight the utility of genomic data with integrative lines of evidence to refine species delimitation and explore evolutionary relationships in complex plant lineages.展开更多
Reconstructing a robust species phylogeny and disentangling the evolutionary and biogeographic history of the gymnosperm genus Ephedra,which has a large genome and rich polyploids,remain a big challenge.Here we recons...Reconstructing a robust species phylogeny and disentangling the evolutionary and biogeographic history of the gymnosperm genus Ephedra,which has a large genome and rich polyploids,remain a big challenge.Here we reconstructed a transcriptome-based phylogeny of 19 diploid Ephedra species,and explored evolutionary reticulations in this genus represented by 50 diploid and polyploid species,using four low-copy nuclear and nine plastid genes.The diploid species phylogeny indicates that the Mediterranean species diverged first,and the remaining species split into three clades,including the American species(Clade A),E.rhytidosperma,and all other Asian species(Clade B).The single-gene trees placed E.rhytidosperma sister to Clade A,Clade B,or Clades A+B in similar proportions,suggesting that radiation and gene flow likely occurred in the early evolution of Ephedra.In addition,reticulate evolution occurred not only among the deep nodes,but also in the recently evolved South American species,which further caused difficulty in phylogenetic reconstruction.Moreover,we found that allopolyploid speciation was pervasive in Ephedra.Our study also suggests that Ephedra very likely originated in the Tethys coast during the late Cretaceous,and the South American Ephedra species have a single origin by dispersal from Mexico or North America.展开更多
Establishment of a creep model is an important method to analyze the relationship between soil creep deformation and time,and the element model is widely used for studying soil creep.However,the element creep model is...Establishment of a creep model is an important method to analyze the relationship between soil creep deformation and time,and the element model is widely used for studying soil creep.However,the element creep model is employed for fitting saturated soil,and the mechanical element model is generally linear,which cannot well fit the nonlinear deformation of the soil with time in practice.The creep process of the soil is not only time-dependent,but also related to the deviatoric stress level.Therefore,the fractional calculus theory and a parameter n reflecting the effect of deviatoric stress level on the creep properties of the soil were introduced into the element model,and the fractional qBurgers creep model was established by using the fractional Koeller dashpot and Caputo fractional calculus.The proposed model was used to fit the triaxial test data of reticulated red clay under different net confining pressures and matric suctions by unsaturated triaxial apparatus.The proposed model can well describe the nonlinearity of unsaturated reticulated red clay,has memory and global correlation to the creep development process of unsaturated reticulated red clay,and has clear physical meaning.The functional relationships of the model parameters with the matric suction,net confining pressure and deviatoric stress level were deduced,so that the creep curves of unsaturated reticulated red clay can be obtained for any conditions,which is of great value for the study of unsaturated soils.展开更多
Contrary to conventional design methods that assume uniform and slow temperature changes tied to atmospheric conditions,single-layer spherical reticulated shells undergo significant non-uniform and time-variant temper...Contrary to conventional design methods that assume uniform and slow temperature changes tied to atmospheric conditions,single-layer spherical reticulated shells undergo significant non-uniform and time-variant temperature variations due to dynamic environmental coupling.These differences can affect structural performance and pose safety risks.Here,a systematic numerical method was developed and applied to simulate long-term temperature variations in such a structure under real environmental conditions,revealing its non-uniform distribution characteristics and time-variant regularity.A simplified design method for non-uniform thermal loads,accounting for time-variant environmental factors,was theoretically derived and validated through experiments and simulations.The maximum deviation and mean error rate between calculated and tested results were 6.1℃ and 3.7%,respectively.Calculated temperature fields aligned with simulated ones,with deviations under 6.0℃.Using the design method,non-uniform thermal effects of the structure are analyzed.Maximum member stress and nodal displacement under non-uniform thermal loads reached 119.3 MPa and 19.7 mm,representing increases of 167.5%and 169.9%,respectively,compared to uniform thermal loads.The impacts of healing construction time on non-uniform thermal effects were evaluated,resulting in construction recommendations.The methodologies and conclusions presented here can serve as valuable references for the thermal design,construction,and control of single-layer spherical reticulated shells or similar structures.展开更多
Kallima butterflies are famous for their leaf-mimicking wing patterns.Yet the characterization of Kallima species is still under debate owing to their high phenotypic similarity.With the release of the K.inachus refer...Kallima butterflies are famous for their leaf-mimicking wing patterns.Yet the characterization of Kallima species is still under debate owing to their high phenotypic similarity.With the release of the K.inachus reference genome,phylogenetic studies based on genome-wide data have been carried out,thus improving the understanding of the evolutionary relationships of the genus Kallima.However,we noticed that there is some conflict between genome-based phylogenies and morphological classifications in butterflies.We further examined the cause of this conflict by conducting an in-depth study of the relationships among Kallima butterflies to test possible reticulate phylogenetic topologies.We constructed phylogenies based on various datasets(including SNPs in single-copy genes,coding sequences,neutral regions and all remaining sites across the genome)to compare the topologies,revealing the complex evolutionary history of Kallima butterflies.Our results suggest that the reticulate species topology may constitute a pervasive pattern present not only in species with adaptive radiations but also in gradually evolving species,with Kallima butterflies as an example.展开更多
The series Variantia Ching et S. H. Wu mainly occur in China and its members are highly variable in morphology. The denomination on this group of Asplenium is very confused in the herbaria. We hop e by means of a bios...The series Variantia Ching et S. H. Wu mainly occur in China and its members are highly variable in morphology. The denomination on this group of Asplenium is very confused in the herbaria. We hop e by means of a biosystematic study to find out their genetic relationships in the reticulate evolution, and to raise a suggestion on their taxonomic treatment. Evidence from cytology, allozyme, morphology, and palynology shows that three ancestor diploids have formed Asplenium sarelii complex comprising 13 members. A. sarelii Hook. should be typified as a diploid. The so-called tetraploid 'A. sarelii' before is an allotetraploid that comes from the doubled hybrid between diploid A. sarelii and A. tenuicaule Hayata, which should be treated as a new species A. wudangense Z. R. Wang et X. Hou. A. pekinense Hance is an autotetraploid that comes from the doubled diploid ancestor A. sarelii. A. lushanense C. Chr., a diploid species and the only ancestor of A. yunnariense group, should not been sunk as a synonym of tetraploid A. yunnariense Franch. Most probably, A. varians Wall. ex Hook. et Grev. is an autotetraploid of A. tenuicaule Hayata. Three new natural tetraploid hybrids and their origins have been found out: they are A. x longmenense ( = A. pekinense x varians), A. x jingyunense ( = A. pekinense x yunnanense) and A. x kidoi ( = A. pekinense x wudangense). Three other new natural triploid hybrids have been found and their origins have been inferred: they are A. X huawuense ( = A. sarelii X wudangense), A. x luyunense ( = A. lushanense x yunnanense) and A. x teniuvaians ( = A. tenuicaule x varians). The method of allozyme comparion combined with cytological observation is employed to reveal the complicated relationships among the members of Asplenium sarelii complex in reticulate evolution and proved to be a highly effective tool to investigate the origin of polyploid and hybrid.展开更多
Industrial applications require enzymes highly stable and economically viable in terms of reusability. Enzyme immobilization is an exciting alternative to improve the stability of enzymatic processes. The immobilizati...Industrial applications require enzymes highly stable and economically viable in terms of reusability. Enzyme immobilization is an exciting alternative to improve the stability of enzymatic processes. The immobilization of two commercial enzymes is reported here (cellulase and xylanase) using three chemical methods (adsorption, reticulation, and crosslinking-adsorption) and two polymeric supports (alginate-chitin and chitosan-chitin). The optimal pH for binding was 4.5 for cellulase and 5.0 for xylanase, and the optimal enzyme concentrations were 170 μg/mL and 127.5 μg/mL respectively, being the chitosan and the ideal support. In some cases, a low concentration of crosslinking agent (glutaraldehyde) improved stability of the immobilization process. Biotechnological characterization showed that the reusability of enzymes was the most striking finding, particularly of immobilized cellulase using glutaraldehyde, which after 19 cycles retained 64% activity. These results confirm the economic and biotechnical advantages of enzyme immobilization for a range of industrial applications.展开更多
文摘Rainwater harvesting?provides an important alternative source of water in household buildings which?increases water security in urban areas. However, high energy cost consumption by the rainwater harvesting systems results in higher management costs which may derail the investment viability of these systems in households. This prompted this study to establish ways through which the management cost of rainwater harvesting systems can be minimized in household buildings. A survey of 200 households from Greenspan, Komarock, Utawala, Kileleshwa and Runda in Nairobi?County was undertaken as?well?as?data?on?the?type?of?rainwater harvesting?systems, their operation and maintenance cost collected using observation checklists and questionnaires. The findings indicated that rainwater harvesting typologies 1, 2, 4 and 5 had their water pumped from first-level storage to the second-level storage then supplied to usage points by gravity. Whereas, typologies 3 and 6 had their water moved manually and by gravity respectively. On annual operation cost, 100% of households with typology 3 and 6 spent no money whereas, 100%, 75% and 70.6% with typology 4 and 5, 1 and 2 respectively spent Ksh. 1?-?5000. On annual maintenance cost, 100%, 93.7% and 77.8% of households with typology 5 and 6, 3 and 4 respectively spent Ksh. 1?-?5000 while 25% and 22.2% of households with typology 1 and 2 respectively spent Ksh. 5000?-?10,000. Advanced typology 6 with one-level storage point supplies rainwater to all parts of the household by gravity. This eliminates operation costs spent on energy consumption due to pumping of water,?thus minimizing overall management cost spent on rainwater harvesting systems in household buildings.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(grant numbers 32270216 and 32000163 to B.B.L.)the Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS(2023086 to B.B.L.)the Biological Resources Programme,Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS-TAX-24-013 to B.B.L.).
文摘Hybridization and introgression have long obscured relationships within Adenophora and its relatives,complicating generic delimitation.Leveraging deep genome skimming(DGS)data,we generated a large dataset,including thousands of single-copy nuclear(SCN)genes and plastomes,to untangle this reticulate history.Specifically,9.89 terabytes(TB)of DGS data from 165 samples—representing 48 species and 13 subspecies of Adenophora(out of ca.72 species)plus 24 outgroup species—yielded 1506 SCN genes and 77 plastid coding sequences.Tree-like phylogenies inferred with both coalescent-and concatenation-based methods revealed pronounced gene tree heterogeneity.Subsequent analysis showed that incomplete lineage sorting contributed minimally to this discordance;instead,hybridization and introgression were the primary drivers of early diversification.Integrating phylogenomic,morphological,and geographic evidence,we propose a revised generic framework for this group.Adenophora is expanded to include Campanula delavayi and the Korean Peninsula endemic genus Hanabusaya.We also recommend reinstating Hyssaria as a distinct Central Asian genus and introducing two new genera,Boreoasia and Rosomala.
基金funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(42171071,42211540718)Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences,CAS(ZDBS-LY-7001)+3 种基金Yunnan Fundamental Research Projects(202401AT070190,202201BC070001)Top-notch Young Talents Project of Yunnan Provincial“Ten Thousand Talents Program”(YNWR-QNBJ-2018-146,YNWR-QNBJ-2020-293)CAS“Light of West China”Programsupported by the China Scholarship Council(202304910135 and 202304910138)for a one-year study at the University of Toronto.
文摘Integrative data from plastid and nuclear loci are increasingly utilized to resolve species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships within major angiosperm clades.Debregeasia(Urticaceae),an economically important genus,presents challenges in species delimitation due to its overlapping morphological traits and unstable taxonomic assignments.Here,we analyzed 14 morphological traits and generated 12 data matrices from the plastomes and nrDNA using genome skimming from the nine recognized morphospecies to clarify species boundaries and assess barcode performance in Debregeasia.We also used a universal set of 353 nuclear genes to explore reticulate evolution and biogeographic history of Debregeasia.Plastomes of Debregeasia exhibited the typical quadripartite structure with conserved gene content and marginal independent variations in the SC/IR boundary at inter-and intra-specific levels.Three Debregeasia species were non-monophyletic and could not be discerned by any barcode;however,ultra-barcodes identified the remaining six(67%),outperforming standard barcodes(56%).Our phylogenetic analyses placed Debregeasia wallichiana outside the genus and suggested six monophyletic clades in Debregeasia,although the placement between Debregeasia hekouensis and Debregeasia libera varied.There was extensive trait overlap in key morphologically diagnostic characters,with reticulation analysis showing potentially pervasive hybridization,likely influenced by speciation patterns and overlaps between species ranges.We inferred that Debregeasia crown diversification began at ca.12.82 Ma(95%HPD:11.54-14.63 Ma)in the mid-Miocene within Australia,followed by vicariance and later longdistance dispersal,mainly out of southern China.Our findings highlight the utility of genomic data with integrative lines of evidence to refine species delimitation and explore evolutionary relationships in complex plant lineages.
基金This study was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program,CAS(XDA23080000)National Key R&D Program of China(2017YFA0605100)Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences,CAS(QYZDJ-SSW-SMC027).
文摘Reconstructing a robust species phylogeny and disentangling the evolutionary and biogeographic history of the gymnosperm genus Ephedra,which has a large genome and rich polyploids,remain a big challenge.Here we reconstructed a transcriptome-based phylogeny of 19 diploid Ephedra species,and explored evolutionary reticulations in this genus represented by 50 diploid and polyploid species,using four low-copy nuclear and nine plastid genes.The diploid species phylogeny indicates that the Mediterranean species diverged first,and the remaining species split into three clades,including the American species(Clade A),E.rhytidosperma,and all other Asian species(Clade B).The single-gene trees placed E.rhytidosperma sister to Clade A,Clade B,or Clades A+B in similar proportions,suggesting that radiation and gene flow likely occurred in the early evolution of Ephedra.In addition,reticulate evolution occurred not only among the deep nodes,but also in the recently evolved South American species,which further caused difficulty in phylogenetic reconstruction.Moreover,we found that allopolyploid speciation was pervasive in Ephedra.Our study also suggests that Ephedra very likely originated in the Tethys coast during the late Cretaceous,and the South American Ephedra species have a single origin by dispersal from Mexico or North America.
基金supported by the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (Grant No.52025085)the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No.2021YFB2600900)the Open Fund of Key Laboratory of Special Environment Road Engineering of Hunan Province,China (Changsha University of Science and Technology) (Grant No.kfj230606).
文摘Establishment of a creep model is an important method to analyze the relationship between soil creep deformation and time,and the element model is widely used for studying soil creep.However,the element creep model is employed for fitting saturated soil,and the mechanical element model is generally linear,which cannot well fit the nonlinear deformation of the soil with time in practice.The creep process of the soil is not only time-dependent,but also related to the deviatoric stress level.Therefore,the fractional calculus theory and a parameter n reflecting the effect of deviatoric stress level on the creep properties of the soil were introduced into the element model,and the fractional qBurgers creep model was established by using the fractional Koeller dashpot and Caputo fractional calculus.The proposed model was used to fit the triaxial test data of reticulated red clay under different net confining pressures and matric suctions by unsaturated triaxial apparatus.The proposed model can well describe the nonlinearity of unsaturated reticulated red clay,has memory and global correlation to the creep development process of unsaturated reticulated red clay,and has clear physical meaning.The functional relationships of the model parameters with the matric suction,net confining pressure and deviatoric stress level were deduced,so that the creep curves of unsaturated reticulated red clay can be obtained for any conditions,which is of great value for the study of unsaturated soils.
基金This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.51578491 and 52238001).
文摘Contrary to conventional design methods that assume uniform and slow temperature changes tied to atmospheric conditions,single-layer spherical reticulated shells undergo significant non-uniform and time-variant temperature variations due to dynamic environmental coupling.These differences can affect structural performance and pose safety risks.Here,a systematic numerical method was developed and applied to simulate long-term temperature variations in such a structure under real environmental conditions,revealing its non-uniform distribution characteristics and time-variant regularity.A simplified design method for non-uniform thermal loads,accounting for time-variant environmental factors,was theoretically derived and validated through experiments and simulations.The maximum deviation and mean error rate between calculated and tested results were 6.1℃ and 3.7%,respectively.Calculated temperature fields aligned with simulated ones,with deviations under 6.0℃.Using the design method,non-uniform thermal effects of the structure are analyzed.Maximum member stress and nodal displacement under non-uniform thermal loads reached 119.3 MPa and 19.7 mm,representing increases of 167.5%and 169.9%,respectively,compared to uniform thermal loads.The impacts of healing construction time on non-uniform thermal effects were evaluated,resulting in construction recommendations.The methodologies and conclusions presented here can serve as valuable references for the thermal design,construction,and control of single-layer spherical reticulated shells or similar structures.
基金supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32325009,32170420)the Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences,and the State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research to WZ and grants from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2023M730082,BX20230026)to SW.
文摘Kallima butterflies are famous for their leaf-mimicking wing patterns.Yet the characterization of Kallima species is still under debate owing to their high phenotypic similarity.With the release of the K.inachus reference genome,phylogenetic studies based on genome-wide data have been carried out,thus improving the understanding of the evolutionary relationships of the genus Kallima.However,we noticed that there is some conflict between genome-based phylogenies and morphological classifications in butterflies.We further examined the cause of this conflict by conducting an in-depth study of the relationships among Kallima butterflies to test possible reticulate phylogenetic topologies.We constructed phylogenies based on various datasets(including SNPs in single-copy genes,coding sequences,neutral regions and all remaining sites across the genome)to compare the topologies,revealing the complex evolutionary history of Kallima butterflies.Our results suggest that the reticulate species topology may constitute a pervasive pattern present not only in species with adaptive radiations but also in gradually evolving species,with Kallima butterflies as an example.
文摘The series Variantia Ching et S. H. Wu mainly occur in China and its members are highly variable in morphology. The denomination on this group of Asplenium is very confused in the herbaria. We hop e by means of a biosystematic study to find out their genetic relationships in the reticulate evolution, and to raise a suggestion on their taxonomic treatment. Evidence from cytology, allozyme, morphology, and palynology shows that three ancestor diploids have formed Asplenium sarelii complex comprising 13 members. A. sarelii Hook. should be typified as a diploid. The so-called tetraploid 'A. sarelii' before is an allotetraploid that comes from the doubled hybrid between diploid A. sarelii and A. tenuicaule Hayata, which should be treated as a new species A. wudangense Z. R. Wang et X. Hou. A. pekinense Hance is an autotetraploid that comes from the doubled diploid ancestor A. sarelii. A. lushanense C. Chr., a diploid species and the only ancestor of A. yunnariense group, should not been sunk as a synonym of tetraploid A. yunnariense Franch. Most probably, A. varians Wall. ex Hook. et Grev. is an autotetraploid of A. tenuicaule Hayata. Three new natural tetraploid hybrids and their origins have been found out: they are A. x longmenense ( = A. pekinense x varians), A. x jingyunense ( = A. pekinense x yunnanense) and A. x kidoi ( = A. pekinense x wudangense). Three other new natural triploid hybrids have been found and their origins have been inferred: they are A. X huawuense ( = A. sarelii X wudangense), A. x luyunense ( = A. lushanense x yunnanense) and A. x teniuvaians ( = A. tenuicaule x varians). The method of allozyme comparion combined with cytological observation is employed to reveal the complicated relationships among the members of Asplenium sarelii complex in reticulate evolution and proved to be a highly effective tool to investigate the origin of polyploid and hybrid.
文摘Industrial applications require enzymes highly stable and economically viable in terms of reusability. Enzyme immobilization is an exciting alternative to improve the stability of enzymatic processes. The immobilization of two commercial enzymes is reported here (cellulase and xylanase) using three chemical methods (adsorption, reticulation, and crosslinking-adsorption) and two polymeric supports (alginate-chitin and chitosan-chitin). The optimal pH for binding was 4.5 for cellulase and 5.0 for xylanase, and the optimal enzyme concentrations were 170 μg/mL and 127.5 μg/mL respectively, being the chitosan and the ideal support. In some cases, a low concentration of crosslinking agent (glutaraldehyde) improved stability of the immobilization process. Biotechnological characterization showed that the reusability of enzymes was the most striking finding, particularly of immobilized cellulase using glutaraldehyde, which after 19 cycles retained 64% activity. These results confirm the economic and biotechnical advantages of enzyme immobilization for a range of industrial applications.
