Objective: To evaluate the anti-hyperprolactinemic effect of methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia against antipsychotic/neuroleptic drug induced hyperprolactinemia. Methods: A total of 48 Wistar albino rats were...Objective: To evaluate the anti-hyperprolactinemic effect of methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia against antipsychotic/neuroleptic drug induced hyperprolactinemia. Methods: A total of 48 Wistar albino rats were chosen in the study. To induce hyperprolactinemia, haloperidol at 5 mg/kg/day was intraperitoneally administered for 16 continuous days and sulpiride at 20 mg/kg/day was administered intraperitoneally for 28 continuous days. Methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia at 200 mg/kg/day and 400 mg/kg/day were administered orally 30 min before administration of haloperidol and sulpiride for 16 and 28 days, respectively. Then, we had evaluated prolactin, dopamine and antioxidant status in the treatment group as compared to haloperidol and sulpiride. Results: There was a significant (P<0.05) increase in serum prolactin level and decrease in dopamine level in the haloperidol and sulpiride treated animals. However, methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia significantly (P<0.05) decreased serum prolactin level and increased brain dopamine level. Further, superoxide dismutase and catalase level were also decreased significantly in the haloperidol and sulpiride treated groups as compared to those of the control group and the antioxidant status was restored significantly on treatment with methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia. Furthermore, methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia also reduced total leukocyte count, and increased red blood cell count and hemoglobin concentration. In addition, the spleen did not show signs of infection or inflammation in the experiments. Conclusions: Methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia has a significant anti-hyperprolactinemic effect which may be attributed to neuroprotective and antioxidant effects of its signature constituents like stepharanine.展开更多
This study aimed to assess the effect of intracellular prolactin (ICPRL) and hyperprolactinemia on cell replication, using an immunohistochemical (IHC) technique for Ki-67 and Mcm-2, and angiogenesis, using IHC for en...This study aimed to assess the effect of intracellular prolactin (ICPRL) and hyperprolactinemia on cell replication, using an immunohistochemical (IHC) technique for Ki-67 and Mcm-2, and angiogenesis, using IHC for endoglin CD-105, in central nervous system (CNS) tumors. This cross-sectional study included 79 cases of surgically excised primary CNS tumors of neuroepithelial origin (41.8% of all cases: 10.2% astrocytomas, 24% glioblastomas and 7.6% oligodendrogliomas) and meningeal origin (58.2% of all cases). Ki-67 and Mcm-2 indexes were calculated as a percentage of marked cells. The medians for Ki-67 and Mcm-2 indexes were significantly lower in meningiomas than in glioblastomas (p S = 0.60) replication markers. There were no significant differences in vascular density between the different histological types. Immunohistochemistry for ICPRL was positive in 45.6% of the tumors. Serum prolactin (PRL) was elevated in 30.6% of the cases. Multiple regression analysis revealed no important correlation of ICPRL and serum PRL on Ki-67 and Mcm-2 indexes or vascular density. The analysis of the combined impact of ICPRL and serum PRL variables revealed a trend towards an increase in microvessel density in tumor tissue and a significant increase in cell replication markers (p = 0.009 for Ki-67 and p = 0.05 for Mcm-2). PRL in tumor tissue may be one of the modulating factors of cell proliferation in the CNS.展开更多
Broody behavior is regulated by hypothalamic prolactin secretion,which seriously affects egg production in poulty production.Numerous studies have provided evidence that animal behavior is governed by dynamic bidirect...Broody behavior is regulated by hypothalamic prolactin secretion,which seriously affects egg production in poulty production.Numerous studies have provided evidence that animal behavior is governed by dynamic bidirectional communication between specific gut bacteria and their host via the brain-gut-microbiome axis.However,little research focused on how the gut microbiota influence broody behavior in poultry.In this study,Zhedong white geese in laying and brooding phases were selected.Ten differentially abundant bacteria in cecum were detected between brooding and laying geese through metagenomic analyses and 16S rRNA sequencing(P<0.05),and Bacteroides fragilis was specifically identified as a key driver species in the brooding geese.Moverover,the serum metabolites were quantified,and the 313 differentially abundant metabolites were found between the two groups of different physiological geese.They were primarily enriched in the tryptophan metabolism pathways.Pearson correlation analyses revealed there was a significant positive correlation between B.fragilis abundance and the context of 11 tryptophan metabolism-related metabolites(such as serotonin,etc.)in broody geese,which hinted that those tryptophan metabolites might be produced or driven by B.fragilis.Finally,the serum hormone levels were also measured.We found there was a positive correlation between B.fragilis abundance and content of serotonin.Besides,prolactin secreted by the pituitary gland was greater in brooding geese than that in laying geese,which was also highly correlated with B.fragilis abundance.This result implied that B.fragilis could promote the secretion of prolactin by the pituitary gland.Together,the current study findings provided the information on gut microbiota influencing broody behavior,B.fragilis produced or driven more serum serotonin,and stimulated the pituitary gland to secret more prolactin,which potentially offered a new enlightenment for the intervention of broody behavior in poultry.展开更多
BACKGROUND Pituitary gland metastasis is an unusual event,and pituitary metastasis from lung adenocarcinoma is extremely rare and associated with poor prognosis.To date,approximately 15 cases have been reported.CASE S...BACKGROUND Pituitary gland metastasis is an unusual event,and pituitary metastasis from lung adenocarcinoma is extremely rare and associated with poor prognosis.To date,approximately 15 cases have been reported.CASE SUMMARY Here,we present the case of a 64-year-old woman with pituitary metastasis derived from lung adenocarcinoma,which was difficult to distinguish from other sellar tumors.The patient presented to the neurosurgery clinic with blurred vision and intermittent headache.During hospitalization,brain computed tomography(CT)and magnetic resonance imaging revealed a pituitary macroadenoma.Chest CT revealed irregular nodules in the basal segment of the lower lobe of the left lung,which were likely lung cancer.Positron emission tomography-CT revealed a carbohydrate metabolism tumor in the lungs and sellar region,which was considered malignant.Postoperative pathological examination of the sellar tumor revealed lung adenocarcinoma.CONCLUSION Excision of pituitary metastases combined with radiotherapy and chemotherapy should be a priority treatment for patients with pituitary metastasis.展开更多
Objective To explore the efficacy of Tuina for postpartum lactation and work out an optimal protocol involved. Methods With a randomized, controlled and clinical method, Eighty-four full-term primiparas were divided i...Objective To explore the efficacy of Tuina for postpartum lactation and work out an optimal protocol involved. Methods With a randomized, controlled and clinical method, Eighty-four full-term primiparas were divided into a Tuina group （58 cases） and a control group （26 cases）. While the patients in the control group received rooming in conventional nursing, those in the Tuina group were additionally treated with Tuina, including local manipulations at the breasts combined with acupoint manipulations. The colostrum time, lactation volume and serum prolactin were observed to make the comparisons between the two groups. Results The scores of lactation quantity after the 1st, 2nd, 3rd of the treatment were 1.660±0.785, 2.530±1.030, 2.880±1.171 in the Tuina group and 1.270±0.533, 1.460±0.811, 1.500±0.583 in the control group respectively, where there were significant differences in each time stage between the two groups （all P0.001）. The time of colostrum was （21.6±10.5） h in the Tuina group and （22.5±9.7） h in the control group, in which the difference was not statistically significant （P0.05）. The levels of prolactin were （314.35±110.37） ng/mL and （321.56±109.61） ng/mL in the Tuina group, （385.78±85.19） ng/mL and （340.12±103.10） ng/mL in the control group before and after treatment respectively, suggested that there were no significant difference （both P0.05）. Conclusion Postpartum Tuina at the breasts could increase the quantity of lactation and delay the decreasing of the levels of prolactin, which contributes primiparas to lactate more and sooner.展开更多
Rats were implanted subcutaneously with silastic capsules containing 10 mg 17-β-estradiol. After 30, 60 and 120 days, their pituitary weights and plasma PRL levels were found to increase significantly. The administra...Rats were implanted subcutaneously with silastic capsules containing 10 mg 17-β-estradiol. After 30, 60 and 120 days, their pituitary weights and plasma PRL levels were found to increase significantly. The administration of β-estradiol also produced a marked rise of PRL mRNA concentrations in the rat total RNA, but the sharper rise of serum PRL levels indicates that estradiol not only promotes transcription of prolactin gene, but also improves the efficiency of translation of the transcription product.展开更多
Today there is significant information indicating an effect of prolactin on the prostate gland. It has been shown to be involved in mechanisms leading to the synthesis of some proteins such as PSA and cathepsin D, syn...Today there is significant information indicating an effect of prolactin on the prostate gland. It has been shown to be involved in mechanisms leading to the synthesis of some proteins such as PSA and cathepsin D, synthesis of citrate and accumulation of zinc. Also, at the behavioral level, prolactin is known to control some aspects of reproduction, including documentation on the physiology of the prostate and the possibility to trigger pathologies in this sex gland. Although the later still is not clear, there is a correlation between the level of prolactin and the presence of prostate pathologies. Thus, the aim of this review is to show how prolactin is involved in the progression of some pathologies of this male sexual gland.展开更多
Objective: To determine if there is a significant rise in serum prolactin (PRL) in acute psychosis related to disease process and weather there is a significant gender difference in the level of PRL and its correlatio...Objective: To determine if there is a significant rise in serum prolactin (PRL) in acute psychosis related to disease process and weather there is a significant gender difference in the level of PRL and its correlation psychopathology. Procedure: Naturalistic study involved 60 consenting outpatients and inpatients in a tertiary psychiatric setting. Patient base was comprised of men (n?= 30) and women (n?= 30) with 83% in the age range of 21 - 40 years old. All subjects had confirmed first episode diagnosis set forth by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Patients were drug free and drug na?ve. Standardization for control was done using 15 control PRL samples obtained from healthy individuals. Methodology involved assessment by radioimmunoassay, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale at day 1, 3 weeks and again at 6 weeks. All patients were treated with atypical antipsychotic drugs. Results: Serum PRL was elevated on baseline in 75% of first episode psychosis schizophrenia, yet found to have a negative correlation to psychopathology at base week 3 and week 6 samples. Conclusions: Elevated serum PRL is not a potential indicator of acute schizophrenia. Levels are higher in females than in males, yet females respond better to treatment at a lower dose than males.展开更多
Background: OHSS is a dangerous and potentially life-threatening condition for which many researchers look for new ways to treat. Aim: To determine the effectiveness of prophylactic cabergoline administration on prola...Background: OHSS is a dangerous and potentially life-threatening condition for which many researchers look for new ways to treat. Aim: To determine the effectiveness of prophylactic cabergoline administration on prolactine levels in patients with high risk for ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). Material and Methods: 163 in vitro fertilisation (IVF) patients with high risk for OHSS were enrolled in the study. The criteria for inclusion were more than 15 oocytes retrieved at oocyte pick up. A standard antagonist protocol was used for ovulation induction. Cabergoline treatments (0.5 mg/day) were started on the day of oocyte retrieval and continued for eight days. Prolactine levels were measured at the day of oocyte retrieval and the 9th day after the oocyte retrieval. Results: Of the 163 patients, 26 (15.9%) had OHSS. Prolactine levels on the day of oocyte retrieval were 44.22 ± 24.78 ng/mL and 37.6 ± 22.5 ng/mL in patients with OHSS and without OHSS, respectively (P > 0.05). In contrary prolactine levels were significantly higher in patients with OHSS patients (3.9 ± 5.07 ng/mL) than in patients without OHSS (2.1 ± 2.92 ng/mL) at the 9th day after oocyte retrieval (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Prolactine levels were higher in patients with OHSS than without OHSS who were treated with cabergoline for the prevention of OHSS.展开更多
Intestinal Ca2+ absorption is a crucial physiological process for maintaining bone mineralization and Ca2+ homeostasis. It occurs through the transcellular and paracellular pathways. The first route comprises 3steps: ...Intestinal Ca2+ absorption is a crucial physiological process for maintaining bone mineralization and Ca2+ homeostasis. It occurs through the transcellular and paracellular pathways. The first route comprises 3steps: the entrance of Ca2+ across the brush border membranes(BBM) of enterocytes through epithelial Ca2+ channels TRPV6, TRPV5, and Cav1.3; Ca2+ movement from the BBM to the basolateral membranes by binding proteins with high Ca2+ affinity(such as CB9k); and Ca2+ extrusion into the blood. Plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase(PMCA1b) and sodium calcium exchanger(NCX1) are mainly involved in the exit of Ca2+ from enterocytes. A novel molecule, the 4.1R protein, seems to be a partner of PMCA1 b, since both molecules colocalize and interact. The paracellular pathway consists of Ca2+ transport through transmembrane proteins of tight junction structures, such as claudins 2, 12, and 15. There is evidence of crosstalk between the transcellular and paracellular pathways in intestinal Ca2+ transport. When intestinal oxidative stress is triggered, there is a decrease in the expression of several molecules of both pathways that inhibit intestinal Ca2+ absorption. Normalization of redox status in the intestine with drugs such as quercetin, ursodeoxycholic acid, or melatonin return intestinal Ca2+ transport to control values. Calcitriol [1,25(OH)2D3] is the major controlling hormone of intestinal Ca2+ transport. It increases the gene and protein expression of most of the molecules involved in both pathways. PTH, thyroid hormones, estrogens, p ro l a c t i n, g ro w t h h o r m o n e, a n d g l u c o c o r t i c o i d s apparently also regulate Ca2+ transport by direct action, indirect mechanism mediated by the increase of renal 1,25(OH)2D3 production, or both. Different physiological conditions, such as growth, pregnancy, lactation, and aging, adjust intestinal Ca2+ absorption according to Ca2+ demands. Better knowledge of the molecular details of intestinal Ca2+ absorption could lead to the development of nutritional and medical strategies for optimizing the efficiency of intestinal Ca2+ absorption and preventing osteoporosis and other pathologies related to Ca2+ metabolism.展开更多
Objective To investigate the associations of hormone circulation with phthalate exposure in adult men. Methods Semen and serum samples were collected from 118 men who were suspected of infertility. Phthalate diesters ...Objective To investigate the associations of hormone circulation with phthalate exposure in adult men. Methods Semen and serum samples were collected from 118 men who were suspected of infertility. Phthalate diesters including dibutyl phthalate （DBP） and diethylhexyl phthalate （DEHP） in both semen and serum samples were measured, along with serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone （FSH）, luteinizing hormone （LH）, testosterone （T）, estradiol （E 2 ） and prolactin （PRL）. Results Serum PRL was positively associated with serum DBP and DEHP and semen DEHP in all models of Spearman correlation, linear regression and binary logistic regression. In linear regression models adjusted for potential confounders and excluding subjects with undetectable phthalates, a 10‐fold increase in semen DEHP was associated with a 23% increase in serum PRL, as well as a 26% increase in serum DBP and a 20% increase in serum DEHP. In logistic regression models all subjects demonstrated a dose‐response relationship between above reference value PRL and semen DEHP （odds ratio per tertile adjusted for potential confounders = 1.0, 1.70, 3.50; P for trend = 0.01）, and serum DBP （1.0, 1.10, 2.62; P for trend = 0.04）, and serum DEHP （1.0, 1.46, 4.69; P for trend 0.01）. A positive correlation between serum estradiol and semen DEHP （linear regression）, and an inverse correlation between semen DBP and serum testosterone and T：E 2 ratio （Spearman correlation） were also established. Conclusions Serum PRL is suggested to be positively associated with both DBP and DEHP exposure in adult men.展开更多
The features of JAK-STAT signaling in liver cells are discussed in the current review. The role of this signaling cascade in carcinogenesis is accentuated. The possible involvement of this pathway and alteration of it...The features of JAK-STAT signaling in liver cells are discussed in the current review. The role of this signaling cascade in carcinogenesis is accentuated. The possible involvement of this pathway and alteration of its elements are compared for normal cholangiocytes, cholangiocarcinoma predisposition and development. Prolactin and interleukin-6 are described in detail as the best studied examples. In addition, the non-classical nuclear translocation of cytokine receptors is discussed in terms of its possible implication to cholangiocarcinoma development.展开更多
Although elevated prolactin levels have been shown to inhibit penile erection,the relationship between prolactin and erection of the penile tip or base has not been extensively researched.We therefore investigated the...Although elevated prolactin levels have been shown to inhibit penile erection,the relationship between prolactin and erection of the penile tip or base has not been extensively researched.We therefore investigated the prolactin's effects on erecti on of the penile tip and base,with a cross-secti onal study of 135 patie nts with erectile dysfuncti on,based on scores of M21 on the In ternational Index of Erectile Function-5.All patients were tested for nocturnal penile tumescenee,blood pressure,serum glucose,total cholesterol,triglyceride,high-density lipoprotein,low-density lipoprotein,luteinizing hormone,follicle-stimulating hormone,prolactin,estradiol,testosterone,and progesterone.Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the associations between prolactin levels and erection at the penile tip and base.We found no obvious relati on ship between erection time at penile tip and prolactin levels,but observed a negative correlation between base erection time and prolactin level(hazard ratio:-2.68;95%confidence interval[Cl]:-5.13-0.22).With increasing prolactin concentration,multivariate analysis showed obvious reduction in base erection time among patients with normal Rigiscan results(hazard ratio:-3.10;95%Cl:-7.96-1.77;P<0.05).Our data indicate that prolactin inhibits penile erection,particularly at the penile base.In addition,when the effective erection time of the penile base lasts longer than 10 min,prolactin has a more obvious inhibitory effect on penile base erection.展开更多
Background Branched-chain amino acids(BCAAs),including L-leucine(L-Leu),L-isoleucine(L-Ile),L-valine(L-Val),and L-arginine(L-Arg),play a crucial role in mammary gland development,secretion of milk and regulation of th...Background Branched-chain amino acids(BCAAs),including L-leucine(L-Leu),L-isoleucine(L-Ile),L-valine(L-Val),and L-arginine(L-Arg),play a crucial role in mammary gland development,secretion of milk and regulation of the catabolic state and immune response of lactating sows.Furthermore,it has recently been suggested that free amino acids(AAs)can also act as microbial modulators.This study aimed at evaluating whether the supplementation of lactating sows with BCAAs(9,4.5 and 9 g/d/sow of L-Val,L-Ile and L-Leu,respectively)and/or L-Arg(22.5 g/d/sow),above the estimated nutritional requirement,could influence the physiological and immunological parameters,microbial profile,colostrum and milk composition and performance of sows and their offspring.Results At d 41,piglets born from the sows supplemented with the AAs were heavier(P=0.03).The BCAAs increased glucose and prolactin(P<0.05)in the sows’serum at d 27,tended to increase immunoglobulin A(IgA)and IgM in the colostrum(P=0.06),increased the IgA(P=0.004)in the milk at d 20 and tended to increase lymphocyte%in the sows’blood at d 27(P=0.07).Furthermore,the BCAAs tended to reduce the Chao1 and Shannon microbial indices(P<0.10)in the sows’faeces.The BCAA group was discriminated by Prevotellaceae_UCG-004,Erysipelatoclostridiaceae UCG-004,the Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group and Treponemaberlinense.Arginine reduced piglet mortality pre-(d 7,d 14)and post-weaning(d 41)(P<0.05).Furthermore,Arg increased the IgM in the sow serum at d 10(P=0.05),glucose and prolactin(P<0.05)in the sow serum at d 27 and the monocyte percentage in the piglet blood at d 27(P=0.025)and their jejunal expression of NFKB2(P=0.035)while it reduced the expression of GPX-2(P=0.024).The faecal microbiota of the sows in Arg group was discriminated by Bacteroidales.The combination of BCAAs and Arg tended to increase spermine at d 27(P=0.099),tended to increase the Igs(IgA and IgG,P<0.10)at d 20 in the milk,favoured the faecal colonisation of Oscillospiraceae UCG-005 and improved piglet growth.Conclusion Feeding Arg and BCAAs above the estimated requirements for milk production may be a strategy to improve sow productive performance in terms of piglet average daily gain(ADG),immune competence and survivability via modulation of the metabolism,colostrum and milk compositions and intestinal microbiota of the sows.The synergistic effect between these AAs,noticeable by the increase of Igs and spermine in the milk and in the improvement of the performance of the piglets,deserves additional investigation.展开更多
This study is aimed at using the DNA mutations in the prolactin receptor （PRLR） and properdin （BF） genes to determine associations between the genotype and litter size in the Beijing Black pig population. A total ...This study is aimed at using the DNA mutations in the prolactin receptor （PRLR） and properdin （BF） genes to determine associations between the genotype and litter size in the Beijing Black pig population. A total of 321 Beijing Black pig sows were genotyped using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism （PCR-RFLP） method, with the Alu I and Sma I for PRLR and BF genes, respectively. Two different alleles of PRLR and BF genes were identified： allele A （0.25） and B （0.75） of the PRLR gene, allele A （0.13） and B （0.86） of the BF gene. The association analysis between the genotypes and the litter size were estimated with the method of the general linear model. The analysis results of PRLR showed that in first parity, sows with genotype AA had a larger litter size than sows with genotype AB and BB, but the difference was statistically not significant. In later parities, statistically significant （P 〈 0.05） differences were seen between sows with genotypes AA and AB, and BB of the PRLR gene. The associated analysis results between genotypes and litter size （total number born, TNB, and number born alive, NBA） showed that there were no significant differences in the first parity sows with different genotypes of the BF gene, but significant differences appeared in NBA between the sows of genotypes AB and BB, in later parity, for which significantly higher values were observed in the offspring of heterozygotes. Considering the consistent genotypic effect on the litter size of both sows in first parity and later parity, it was concluded that the locus of the PRLR gene, digested with Alu I, could be the gene maker for the litter size in Beijing Black pigs.展开更多
Dopamine agonists effectively reduce the secretion of prolactin (PRL) in the great majority of prolactinomas and reduce the bulk of the adenomas, as well as have partial therapeutic effect on some patients with acrome...Dopamine agonists effectively reduce the secretion of prolactin (PRL) in the great majority of prolactinomas and reduce the bulk of the adenomas, as well as have partial therapeutic effect on some patients with acromegaly. The inhibitory effect of bromocriptine (BC), a dopamine agonist, on growth hormone (GH) and PRL secretion of dispersed cells from the pituitary adenomas of 16 cases of acromegaly, which secret GH and PRL simultaneously, were evaluated in vitro. The significant inhibitory effects of BC on PRL secretion were found in 12 cases. It was also found that PRL secretion was strongly inhibited when GH was suppressed; on the contrary, when GH secretion was not suppressed, the production of PRL was not or weakly inhibited. The exact mechanism of the effects is nuclear so far. It is necessary to investigate, at molecular level, the etiology of GH-PRL adenomas and its response to therapeutic agents.展开更多
We have previously shown a critical role of prolactin (PRL) during maturation and anti-tumor effects of murine natural killer (NK) cells in vitro and in vivo. We extended that study by exploring the ability of human N...We have previously shown a critical role of prolactin (PRL) during maturation and anti-tumor effects of murine natural killer (NK) cells in vitro and in vivo. We extended that study by exploring the ability of human NK cell lines (NK-92 and YT cell) to express PRL receptor (PRL-R) and to respond to PRL stimulation in vitro. Both human NK cell lines constitutively expressed PRL-R on membrane and mRNA transcripts,NK-92 cells contained higher level of PRL-R than YT cells,which correlated to the enhanced capacity of the cells to proliferate and to lyse target cells in response to PRL stimulation in the presence of trace amount of IL-2 or IL-15 in vitro. Two differences between IL-2 and IL-15 in functioning on human NK cells were for the first time observed. PRL synergized with IL-15 to improve proliferation of NK cells in a dose-dependent manner without double peak manifesting like IL-2. Although PRL enhanced the cytotoxicity of IL-2 or IL- 15 activated NK cells,it exerted the function through up-regulating gene expression of perforin without influence of FasL in IL-2-stimulated NK cells,while in IL-15-stimulated NK cells,PRL did the function through up-regulating gene expression of both perforin and FasL but not IFNγ. PRL increased expressions of IL-2Rα on membrane and of IL-2 mRNA in cells,indicating that PRL up-regulated NK cell function by improving positive feedback between IL-2 and IL-2R. The similar results were also observed in network between IL-15 and IL-15R. These data indicate a potential role of PRL in human NK cell modulation.展开更多
Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone associated with an extensive variety of biological functions.Among the roles of prolactin in vertebrates,some were preserved throughout evolution.This is the case of its function in ...Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone associated with an extensive variety of biological functions.Among the roles of prolactin in vertebrates,some were preserved throughout evolution.This is the case of its function in the brain,where prolactin receptors,are expressed in different structures of the central nervous system.In the brain,prolactin actions are principally associated with reproduction and parental behavior,and involves the modulation of adult neurogenesis,neuroprotection,and neuroplasticity,especially during pregnancy,thereby preparing the brain to parenthood.Prolactin is mainly produced by specialized cells in the anterior pituitary gland.However,during vertebrate evolution many other extrapituitary tissues do also produce prolactin,like the immune system,endothelial cells,reproductive structures and in several regions of the brain.This review summarizes the relevance of prolactin for brain function,the sources of prolactin in the central nervous system,as well as its local production and secretion.A highlight on the impact of prolactin in human neurological diseases is also provided.展开更多
文摘Objective: To evaluate the anti-hyperprolactinemic effect of methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia against antipsychotic/neuroleptic drug induced hyperprolactinemia. Methods: A total of 48 Wistar albino rats were chosen in the study. To induce hyperprolactinemia, haloperidol at 5 mg/kg/day was intraperitoneally administered for 16 continuous days and sulpiride at 20 mg/kg/day was administered intraperitoneally for 28 continuous days. Methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia at 200 mg/kg/day and 400 mg/kg/day were administered orally 30 min before administration of haloperidol and sulpiride for 16 and 28 days, respectively. Then, we had evaluated prolactin, dopamine and antioxidant status in the treatment group as compared to haloperidol and sulpiride. Results: There was a significant (P<0.05) increase in serum prolactin level and decrease in dopamine level in the haloperidol and sulpiride treated animals. However, methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia significantly (P<0.05) decreased serum prolactin level and increased brain dopamine level. Further, superoxide dismutase and catalase level were also decreased significantly in the haloperidol and sulpiride treated groups as compared to those of the control group and the antioxidant status was restored significantly on treatment with methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia. Furthermore, methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia also reduced total leukocyte count, and increased red blood cell count and hemoglobin concentration. In addition, the spleen did not show signs of infection or inflammation in the experiments. Conclusions: Methanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia has a significant anti-hyperprolactinemic effect which may be attributed to neuroprotective and antioxidant effects of its signature constituents like stepharanine.
文摘This study aimed to assess the effect of intracellular prolactin (ICPRL) and hyperprolactinemia on cell replication, using an immunohistochemical (IHC) technique for Ki-67 and Mcm-2, and angiogenesis, using IHC for endoglin CD-105, in central nervous system (CNS) tumors. This cross-sectional study included 79 cases of surgically excised primary CNS tumors of neuroepithelial origin (41.8% of all cases: 10.2% astrocytomas, 24% glioblastomas and 7.6% oligodendrogliomas) and meningeal origin (58.2% of all cases). Ki-67 and Mcm-2 indexes were calculated as a percentage of marked cells. The medians for Ki-67 and Mcm-2 indexes were significantly lower in meningiomas than in glioblastomas (p S = 0.60) replication markers. There were no significant differences in vascular density between the different histological types. Immunohistochemistry for ICPRL was positive in 45.6% of the tumors. Serum prolactin (PRL) was elevated in 30.6% of the cases. Multiple regression analysis revealed no important correlation of ICPRL and serum PRL on Ki-67 and Mcm-2 indexes or vascular density. The analysis of the combined impact of ICPRL and serum PRL variables revealed a trend towards an increase in microvessel density in tumor tissue and a significant increase in cell replication markers (p = 0.009 for Ki-67 and p = 0.05 for Mcm-2). PRL in tumor tissue may be one of the modulating factors of cell proliferation in the CNS.
基金supported by the Modern Agro-industry Technology Research System,China(CARS-42-3)the“JBGS”Project of Seed Industry Revitalization in Jiangsu Province,China(JBGS(2021)023)the Project in Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China(19211168).
文摘Broody behavior is regulated by hypothalamic prolactin secretion,which seriously affects egg production in poulty production.Numerous studies have provided evidence that animal behavior is governed by dynamic bidirectional communication between specific gut bacteria and their host via the brain-gut-microbiome axis.However,little research focused on how the gut microbiota influence broody behavior in poultry.In this study,Zhedong white geese in laying and brooding phases were selected.Ten differentially abundant bacteria in cecum were detected between brooding and laying geese through metagenomic analyses and 16S rRNA sequencing(P<0.05),and Bacteroides fragilis was specifically identified as a key driver species in the brooding geese.Moverover,the serum metabolites were quantified,and the 313 differentially abundant metabolites were found between the two groups of different physiological geese.They were primarily enriched in the tryptophan metabolism pathways.Pearson correlation analyses revealed there was a significant positive correlation between B.fragilis abundance and the context of 11 tryptophan metabolism-related metabolites(such as serotonin,etc.)in broody geese,which hinted that those tryptophan metabolites might be produced or driven by B.fragilis.Finally,the serum hormone levels were also measured.We found there was a positive correlation between B.fragilis abundance and content of serotonin.Besides,prolactin secreted by the pituitary gland was greater in brooding geese than that in laying geese,which was also highly correlated with B.fragilis abundance.This result implied that B.fragilis could promote the secretion of prolactin by the pituitary gland.Together,the current study findings provided the information on gut microbiota influencing broody behavior,B.fragilis produced or driven more serum serotonin,and stimulated the pituitary gland to secret more prolactin,which potentially offered a new enlightenment for the intervention of broody behavior in poultry.
文摘BACKGROUND Pituitary gland metastasis is an unusual event,and pituitary metastasis from lung adenocarcinoma is extremely rare and associated with poor prognosis.To date,approximately 15 cases have been reported.CASE SUMMARY Here,we present the case of a 64-year-old woman with pituitary metastasis derived from lung adenocarcinoma,which was difficult to distinguish from other sellar tumors.The patient presented to the neurosurgery clinic with blurred vision and intermittent headache.During hospitalization,brain computed tomography(CT)and magnetic resonance imaging revealed a pituitary macroadenoma.Chest CT revealed irregular nodules in the basal segment of the lower lobe of the left lung,which were likely lung cancer.Positron emission tomography-CT revealed a carbohydrate metabolism tumor in the lungs and sellar region,which was considered malignant.Postoperative pathological examination of the sellar tumor revealed lung adenocarcinoma.CONCLUSION Excision of pituitary metastases combined with radiotherapy and chemotherapy should be a priority treatment for patients with pituitary metastasis.
文摘Objective To explore the efficacy of Tuina for postpartum lactation and work out an optimal protocol involved. Methods With a randomized, controlled and clinical method, Eighty-four full-term primiparas were divided into a Tuina group （58 cases） and a control group （26 cases）. While the patients in the control group received rooming in conventional nursing, those in the Tuina group were additionally treated with Tuina, including local manipulations at the breasts combined with acupoint manipulations. The colostrum time, lactation volume and serum prolactin were observed to make the comparisons between the two groups. Results The scores of lactation quantity after the 1st, 2nd, 3rd of the treatment were 1.660±0.785, 2.530±1.030, 2.880±1.171 in the Tuina group and 1.270±0.533, 1.460±0.811, 1.500±0.583 in the control group respectively, where there were significant differences in each time stage between the two groups （all P0.001）. The time of colostrum was （21.6±10.5） h in the Tuina group and （22.5±9.7） h in the control group, in which the difference was not statistically significant （P0.05）. The levels of prolactin were （314.35±110.37） ng/mL and （321.56±109.61） ng/mL in the Tuina group, （385.78±85.19） ng/mL and （340.12±103.10） ng/mL in the control group before and after treatment respectively, suggested that there were no significant difference （both P0.05）. Conclusion Postpartum Tuina at the breasts could increase the quantity of lactation and delay the decreasing of the levels of prolactin, which contributes primiparas to lactate more and sooner.
文摘Rats were implanted subcutaneously with silastic capsules containing 10 mg 17-β-estradiol. After 30, 60 and 120 days, their pituitary weights and plasma PRL levels were found to increase significantly. The administration of β-estradiol also produced a marked rise of PRL mRNA concentrations in the rat total RNA, but the sharper rise of serum PRL levels indicates that estradiol not only promotes transcription of prolactin gene, but also improves the efficiency of translation of the transcription product.
文摘Today there is significant information indicating an effect of prolactin on the prostate gland. It has been shown to be involved in mechanisms leading to the synthesis of some proteins such as PSA and cathepsin D, synthesis of citrate and accumulation of zinc. Also, at the behavioral level, prolactin is known to control some aspects of reproduction, including documentation on the physiology of the prostate and the possibility to trigger pathologies in this sex gland. Although the later still is not clear, there is a correlation between the level of prolactin and the presence of prostate pathologies. Thus, the aim of this review is to show how prolactin is involved in the progression of some pathologies of this male sexual gland.
文摘Objective: To determine if there is a significant rise in serum prolactin (PRL) in acute psychosis related to disease process and weather there is a significant gender difference in the level of PRL and its correlation psychopathology. Procedure: Naturalistic study involved 60 consenting outpatients and inpatients in a tertiary psychiatric setting. Patient base was comprised of men (n?= 30) and women (n?= 30) with 83% in the age range of 21 - 40 years old. All subjects had confirmed first episode diagnosis set forth by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Patients were drug free and drug na?ve. Standardization for control was done using 15 control PRL samples obtained from healthy individuals. Methodology involved assessment by radioimmunoassay, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale at day 1, 3 weeks and again at 6 weeks. All patients were treated with atypical antipsychotic drugs. Results: Serum PRL was elevated on baseline in 75% of first episode psychosis schizophrenia, yet found to have a negative correlation to psychopathology at base week 3 and week 6 samples. Conclusions: Elevated serum PRL is not a potential indicator of acute schizophrenia. Levels are higher in females than in males, yet females respond better to treatment at a lower dose than males.
文摘Background: OHSS is a dangerous and potentially life-threatening condition for which many researchers look for new ways to treat. Aim: To determine the effectiveness of prophylactic cabergoline administration on prolactine levels in patients with high risk for ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). Material and Methods: 163 in vitro fertilisation (IVF) patients with high risk for OHSS were enrolled in the study. The criteria for inclusion were more than 15 oocytes retrieved at oocyte pick up. A standard antagonist protocol was used for ovulation induction. Cabergoline treatments (0.5 mg/day) were started on the day of oocyte retrieval and continued for eight days. Prolactine levels were measured at the day of oocyte retrieval and the 9th day after the oocyte retrieval. Results: Of the 163 patients, 26 (15.9%) had OHSS. Prolactine levels on the day of oocyte retrieval were 44.22 ± 24.78 ng/mL and 37.6 ± 22.5 ng/mL in patients with OHSS and without OHSS, respectively (P > 0.05). In contrary prolactine levels were significantly higher in patients with OHSS patients (3.9 ± 5.07 ng/mL) than in patients without OHSS (2.1 ± 2.92 ng/mL) at the 9th day after oocyte retrieval (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Prolactine levels were higher in patients with OHSS than without OHSS who were treated with cabergoline for the prevention of OHSS.
文摘Intestinal Ca2+ absorption is a crucial physiological process for maintaining bone mineralization and Ca2+ homeostasis. It occurs through the transcellular and paracellular pathways. The first route comprises 3steps: the entrance of Ca2+ across the brush border membranes(BBM) of enterocytes through epithelial Ca2+ channels TRPV6, TRPV5, and Cav1.3; Ca2+ movement from the BBM to the basolateral membranes by binding proteins with high Ca2+ affinity(such as CB9k); and Ca2+ extrusion into the blood. Plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase(PMCA1b) and sodium calcium exchanger(NCX1) are mainly involved in the exit of Ca2+ from enterocytes. A novel molecule, the 4.1R protein, seems to be a partner of PMCA1 b, since both molecules colocalize and interact. The paracellular pathway consists of Ca2+ transport through transmembrane proteins of tight junction structures, such as claudins 2, 12, and 15. There is evidence of crosstalk between the transcellular and paracellular pathways in intestinal Ca2+ transport. When intestinal oxidative stress is triggered, there is a decrease in the expression of several molecules of both pathways that inhibit intestinal Ca2+ absorption. Normalization of redox status in the intestine with drugs such as quercetin, ursodeoxycholic acid, or melatonin return intestinal Ca2+ transport to control values. Calcitriol [1,25(OH)2D3] is the major controlling hormone of intestinal Ca2+ transport. It increases the gene and protein expression of most of the molecules involved in both pathways. PTH, thyroid hormones, estrogens, p ro l a c t i n, g ro w t h h o r m o n e, a n d g l u c o c o r t i c o i d s apparently also regulate Ca2+ transport by direct action, indirect mechanism mediated by the increase of renal 1,25(OH)2D3 production, or both. Different physiological conditions, such as growth, pregnancy, lactation, and aging, adjust intestinal Ca2+ absorption according to Ca2+ demands. Better knowledge of the molecular details of intestinal Ca2+ absorption could lead to the development of nutritional and medical strategies for optimizing the efficiency of intestinal Ca2+ absorption and preventing osteoporosis and other pathologies related to Ca2+ metabolism.
基金supported by a grant (08GWQ003) from the Shanghai Municipal Health Bureauby a grant (2007JG05) from the Shanghai Population and Family Planning Commission
文摘Objective To investigate the associations of hormone circulation with phthalate exposure in adult men. Methods Semen and serum samples were collected from 118 men who were suspected of infertility. Phthalate diesters including dibutyl phthalate （DBP） and diethylhexyl phthalate （DEHP） in both semen and serum samples were measured, along with serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone （FSH）, luteinizing hormone （LH）, testosterone （T）, estradiol （E 2 ） and prolactin （PRL）. Results Serum PRL was positively associated with serum DBP and DEHP and semen DEHP in all models of Spearman correlation, linear regression and binary logistic regression. In linear regression models adjusted for potential confounders and excluding subjects with undetectable phthalates, a 10‐fold increase in semen DEHP was associated with a 23% increase in serum PRL, as well as a 26% increase in serum DBP and a 20% increase in serum DEHP. In logistic regression models all subjects demonstrated a dose‐response relationship between above reference value PRL and semen DEHP （odds ratio per tertile adjusted for potential confounders = 1.0, 1.70, 3.50; P for trend = 0.01）, and serum DBP （1.0, 1.10, 2.62; P for trend = 0.04）, and serum DEHP （1.0, 1.46, 4.69; P for trend 0.01）. A positive correlation between serum estradiol and semen DEHP （linear regression）, and an inverse correlation between semen DBP and serum testosterone and T：E 2 ratio （Spearman correlation） were also established. Conclusions Serum PRL is suggested to be positively associated with both DBP and DEHP exposure in adult men.
文摘The features of JAK-STAT signaling in liver cells are discussed in the current review. The role of this signaling cascade in carcinogenesis is accentuated. The possible involvement of this pathway and alteration of its elements are compared for normal cholangiocytes, cholangiocarcinoma predisposition and development. Prolactin and interleukin-6 are described in detail as the best studied examples. In addition, the non-classical nuclear translocation of cytokine receptors is discussed in terms of its possible implication to cholangiocarcinoma development.
基金This work was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China(No.81670625 and No.81470969)the Shandong Province Natural Science Foundation(No.ZR2017BH104,No.ZR2018MH006,No.ZR2018BH007 and No.ZR2015PH023)the Youth Foundation and Ybuth Talent Foundation of the Second Hospital of Shandong University(No.2018YT32 and No.Y2015010038).
文摘Although elevated prolactin levels have been shown to inhibit penile erection,the relationship between prolactin and erection of the penile tip or base has not been extensively researched.We therefore investigated the prolactin's effects on erecti on of the penile tip and base,with a cross-secti onal study of 135 patie nts with erectile dysfuncti on,based on scores of M21 on the In ternational Index of Erectile Function-5.All patients were tested for nocturnal penile tumescenee,blood pressure,serum glucose,total cholesterol,triglyceride,high-density lipoprotein,low-density lipoprotein,luteinizing hormone,follicle-stimulating hormone,prolactin,estradiol,testosterone,and progesterone.Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the associations between prolactin levels and erection at the penile tip and base.We found no obvious relati on ship between erection time at penile tip and prolactin levels,but observed a negative correlation between base erection time and prolactin level(hazard ratio:-2.68;95%confidence interval[Cl]:-5.13-0.22).With increasing prolactin concentration,multivariate analysis showed obvious reduction in base erection time among patients with normal Rigiscan results(hazard ratio:-3.10;95%Cl:-7.96-1.77;P<0.05).Our data indicate that prolactin inhibits penile erection,particularly at the penile base.In addition,when the effective erection time of the penile base lasts longer than 10 min,prolactin has a more obvious inhibitory effect on penile base erection.
文摘Background Branched-chain amino acids(BCAAs),including L-leucine(L-Leu),L-isoleucine(L-Ile),L-valine(L-Val),and L-arginine(L-Arg),play a crucial role in mammary gland development,secretion of milk and regulation of the catabolic state and immune response of lactating sows.Furthermore,it has recently been suggested that free amino acids(AAs)can also act as microbial modulators.This study aimed at evaluating whether the supplementation of lactating sows with BCAAs(9,4.5 and 9 g/d/sow of L-Val,L-Ile and L-Leu,respectively)and/or L-Arg(22.5 g/d/sow),above the estimated nutritional requirement,could influence the physiological and immunological parameters,microbial profile,colostrum and milk composition and performance of sows and their offspring.Results At d 41,piglets born from the sows supplemented with the AAs were heavier(P=0.03).The BCAAs increased glucose and prolactin(P<0.05)in the sows’serum at d 27,tended to increase immunoglobulin A(IgA)and IgM in the colostrum(P=0.06),increased the IgA(P=0.004)in the milk at d 20 and tended to increase lymphocyte%in the sows’blood at d 27(P=0.07).Furthermore,the BCAAs tended to reduce the Chao1 and Shannon microbial indices(P<0.10)in the sows’faeces.The BCAA group was discriminated by Prevotellaceae_UCG-004,Erysipelatoclostridiaceae UCG-004,the Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group and Treponemaberlinense.Arginine reduced piglet mortality pre-(d 7,d 14)and post-weaning(d 41)(P<0.05).Furthermore,Arg increased the IgM in the sow serum at d 10(P=0.05),glucose and prolactin(P<0.05)in the sow serum at d 27 and the monocyte percentage in the piglet blood at d 27(P=0.025)and their jejunal expression of NFKB2(P=0.035)while it reduced the expression of GPX-2(P=0.024).The faecal microbiota of the sows in Arg group was discriminated by Bacteroidales.The combination of BCAAs and Arg tended to increase spermine at d 27(P=0.099),tended to increase the Igs(IgA and IgG,P<0.10)at d 20 in the milk,favoured the faecal colonisation of Oscillospiraceae UCG-005 and improved piglet growth.Conclusion Feeding Arg and BCAAs above the estimated requirements for milk production may be a strategy to improve sow productive performance in terms of piglet average daily gain(ADG),immune competence and survivability via modulation of the metabolism,colostrum and milk compositions and intestinal microbiota of the sows.The synergistic effect between these AAs,noticeable by the increase of Igs and spermine in the milk and in the improvement of the performance of the piglets,deserves additional investigation.
基金supported by the National Key Technologies R&D Program of China during the 11th Five-Year Plan period (2006BAD01A08)the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (2006AA10Z199)
文摘This study is aimed at using the DNA mutations in the prolactin receptor （PRLR） and properdin （BF） genes to determine associations between the genotype and litter size in the Beijing Black pig population. A total of 321 Beijing Black pig sows were genotyped using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism （PCR-RFLP） method, with the Alu I and Sma I for PRLR and BF genes, respectively. Two different alleles of PRLR and BF genes were identified： allele A （0.25） and B （0.75） of the PRLR gene, allele A （0.13） and B （0.86） of the BF gene. The association analysis between the genotypes and the litter size were estimated with the method of the general linear model. The analysis results of PRLR showed that in first parity, sows with genotype AA had a larger litter size than sows with genotype AB and BB, but the difference was statistically not significant. In later parities, statistically significant （P 〈 0.05） differences were seen between sows with genotypes AA and AB, and BB of the PRLR gene. The associated analysis results between genotypes and litter size （total number born, TNB, and number born alive, NBA） showed that there were no significant differences in the first parity sows with different genotypes of the BF gene, but significant differences appeared in NBA between the sows of genotypes AB and BB, in later parity, for which significantly higher values were observed in the offspring of heterozygotes. Considering the consistent genotypic effect on the litter size of both sows in first parity and later parity, it was concluded that the locus of the PRLR gene, digested with Alu I, could be the gene maker for the litter size in Beijing Black pigs.
文摘Dopamine agonists effectively reduce the secretion of prolactin (PRL) in the great majority of prolactinomas and reduce the bulk of the adenomas, as well as have partial therapeutic effect on some patients with acromegaly. The inhibitory effect of bromocriptine (BC), a dopamine agonist, on growth hormone (GH) and PRL secretion of dispersed cells from the pituitary adenomas of 16 cases of acromegaly, which secret GH and PRL simultaneously, were evaluated in vitro. The significant inhibitory effects of BC on PRL secretion were found in 12 cases. It was also found that PRL secretion was strongly inhibited when GH was suppressed; on the contrary, when GH secretion was not suppressed, the production of PRL was not or weakly inhibited. The exact mechanism of the effects is nuclear so far. It is necessary to investigate, at molecular level, the etiology of GH-PRL adenomas and its response to therapeutic agents.
基金supported partly by Outstanding Young Scientist Award and Key Project by Natural Science Foundation of China(No.30125038,No.30230340)The Major Sate Basic research Development program of China(No.2001CB510009)+1 种基金The National high technology research and Development program of China(No.2002AA216151)by Ministry of Science and Technology of ChinaKey Project by Chinese Academy of Science(No.KSCX2-2-08).
文摘We have previously shown a critical role of prolactin (PRL) during maturation and anti-tumor effects of murine natural killer (NK) cells in vitro and in vivo. We extended that study by exploring the ability of human NK cell lines (NK-92 and YT cell) to express PRL receptor (PRL-R) and to respond to PRL stimulation in vitro. Both human NK cell lines constitutively expressed PRL-R on membrane and mRNA transcripts,NK-92 cells contained higher level of PRL-R than YT cells,which correlated to the enhanced capacity of the cells to proliferate and to lyse target cells in response to PRL stimulation in the presence of trace amount of IL-2 or IL-15 in vitro. Two differences between IL-2 and IL-15 in functioning on human NK cells were for the first time observed. PRL synergized with IL-15 to improve proliferation of NK cells in a dose-dependent manner without double peak manifesting like IL-2. Although PRL enhanced the cytotoxicity of IL-2 or IL- 15 activated NK cells,it exerted the function through up-regulating gene expression of perforin without influence of FasL in IL-2-stimulated NK cells,while in IL-15-stimulated NK cells,PRL did the function through up-regulating gene expression of both perforin and FasL but not IFNγ. PRL increased expressions of IL-2Rα on membrane and of IL-2 mRNA in cells,indicating that PRL up-regulated NK cell function by improving positive feedback between IL-2 and IL-2R. The similar results were also observed in network between IL-15 and IL-15R. These data indicate a potential role of PRL in human NK cell modulation.
基金supported by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia(FCT,I.P.,Portugal,http://www.fct.p)project grants UID/Multi/00709/2013 and UID/Multi/00709/2019ARCB is a recipient of a PhD fellowship funded by the FCT(SFRH/BD/121890/2016)+1 种基金supported by the State Budget of the Portuguese Ministry of Science,Technology and Higher Education,by the European Commission and by the European Social Fund through the“Programa Operacional Regional Centro”funded by the grant“Sociedade Portuguesa de Endocrinologia Diabetes e Metabolismovartis Oncology em Patologia Hipofisária 2019”and the European Regional Development Fund through the“Programa Operacional Regional do Centro(Centro 2020)-Sistema de ApoioàInvestigação Científica e Tecnológica-Programas Integrados de IC&DT”(Project Centro-01-0145-FEDER-000019-C4-Centro de Competências em Cloud Computing).
文摘Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone associated with an extensive variety of biological functions.Among the roles of prolactin in vertebrates,some were preserved throughout evolution.This is the case of its function in the brain,where prolactin receptors,are expressed in different structures of the central nervous system.In the brain,prolactin actions are principally associated with reproduction and parental behavior,and involves the modulation of adult neurogenesis,neuroprotection,and neuroplasticity,especially during pregnancy,thereby preparing the brain to parenthood.Prolactin is mainly produced by specialized cells in the anterior pituitary gland.However,during vertebrate evolution many other extrapituitary tissues do also produce prolactin,like the immune system,endothelial cells,reproductive structures and in several regions of the brain.This review summarizes the relevance of prolactin for brain function,the sources of prolactin in the central nervous system,as well as its local production and secretion.A highlight on the impact of prolactin in human neurological diseases is also provided.
