Effectiveness and safety of mouthguards are greatly affected by its thickness. The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of model height and model position on the forming table on the mouthguard thickness in the...Effectiveness and safety of mouthguards are greatly affected by its thickness. The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of model height and model position on the forming table on the mouthguard thickness in thermoforming using a circular frame. Mouthguards were thermoformed using 4.0-mm-thick ethylene-vinyl-acetate sheets and a vacuum forming machine. The sheet was sandwiched between circular frames and fixed to the clamp of the forming machine. Working models were two types of hard gypsum models trimmed so that the height of the anterior part was 25 mm (Model A) and 30 mm (Model B). The model was placed with its anterior rim positioned 40 mm (P40), 30 mm (P30), 20 mm (P20), or 10 mm (P10) from the front of the forming table. Differences in the reduction rate of the thickness due to the model height and model positions were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Differences depending on the model height were observed at P40 at the incisal edge and P30, P20, and P10 on the labial surface, and the reduction rate of the thickness was significantly smaller in Model A (P < 0.01). As the distance from the model anterior rim to the front of the forming table was smaller, the rate of the thickness of the incisal edge and the labial surface decreases became larger. The rate of decrease in the thickness of the cusp and buccal surface was the smallest at P20. This study indicated that the difference in the thickness of the single-layer mouthguard depending on the model position on the forming table is affected by the model height. However, that is only the anterior part of the mouthguard, and the difference in thickness reduction rate is less than 5%. Additionally, in order to perform stable forming, it is useful to increase the distance from the model to the frame, and it is important to position the part whose thickness is desired to be maintained in the center of the forming table.展开更多
Individual Tree Detection-and-Counting(ITDC)is among the important tasks in town areas,and numerous methods are proposed in this direction.Despite their many advantages,still,the proposed methods are inadequate to pro...Individual Tree Detection-and-Counting(ITDC)is among the important tasks in town areas,and numerous methods are proposed in this direction.Despite their many advantages,still,the proposed methods are inadequate to provide robust results because they mostly rely on the direct field investigations.This paper presents a novel approach involving high-resolution imagery and the Canopy-Height-Model(CHM)data to solve the ITDC problem.The new approach is studied in six urban scenes:farmland,woodland,park,industrial land,road and residential areas.First,it identifies tree canopy regions using a deep learning network from high-resolution imagery.It then deploys the CHM-data to detect treetops of the canopy regions using a local maximum algorithm and individual tree canopies using the region growing.Finally,it calculates and describes the number of individual trees and tree canopies.The proposed approach is experimented with the data from Shanghai,China.Our results show that the individual tree detection method had an average overall accuracy of 0.953,with a precision of 0.987 for woodland scene.Meanwhile,the R^(2) value for canopy segmentation in different urban scenes is greater than 0.780 and 0.779 for canopy area and diameter size,respectively.These results confirm that the proposed method is robust enough for urban tree planning and management.展开更多
Fifty-three larch interspecific hybrid clones（Larix kaempferi × L.gmelini） and their parent clones were used for growth curve analysis of height variations.The growth curves of the 55 clones were ＇S＇-shaped a...Fifty-three larch interspecific hybrid clones（Larix kaempferi × L.gmelini） and their parent clones were used for growth curve analysis of height variations.The growth curves of the 55 clones were ＇S＇-shaped and 36 exhibited similar curves as the male parent.The coefficients of the logistic models were higher than 0.943,indicating that our results were effective in the simulation of the growth curves.ANOVA analysis showed significant differences in height of different clones （P／0.01）.Average date of maximum height growth was Day 173,and average duration of rapid growth lasted for 50 days.Annual average increase in height was 9.7cm d^（-1） and daily average increase was 0.2 cm.The ratio of GR to the total annual increase in height ranged from 51.2 to 68.8%,with the average being 59.8%.There was a positive correlation between k values and plant heights which benefited from the evaluation of early plant height.There was also a positive correlation between GR（growth stage）,GD（plant height） and annual increase in height.These results are informative to the evaluation of the elite clone selection and provide a theoretical basis for breeding and management.展开更多
Understanding the relationship between tree height （H） and diameter at breast height （D） is vital to forest design, monitoring and biomass estimation. We developed an allometric equation model and tested its appli...Understanding the relationship between tree height （H） and diameter at breast height （D） is vital to forest design, monitoring and biomass estimation. We developed an allometric equation model and tested its applicability for unevenly aged stands of moso bamboo forest at a regional scale. Field data were collected for 21 plots. Based on these data, we identified two strong power relationships： a corre- lation between the mean bamboo height （Hm） and the upper mean H （Hu）, and a correlation between the mean D （Din） and the upper mean D （Du）. Simulation results derived from the aUometric equation model were in good agreement with observed culms derived from the field data for the 21 stands, with a root-mean-square error and relative root-mean-square error of 1.40 m and 13.41%, respectively. These results demonstrate that the allometric equation model had a strong predictive power in the unevenly aged stands at a regional scale. In addition, the estimated average height-diameter （H-D） model for South Anhui Province was used to predict H for the same type of bamboo in Hunan Province based on the measured D, and the results were highly similar. The allometric equation model has multiple uses at the regional scale, including the evaluation of the variation in the H- D relationship among regions. The model describes the average H-D relationship without considering the effects caused by variation in site conditions, tree density and other factors.展开更多
Many applications in geodesy, hydrography and engineering require geoid-related heights. Spirit leveling which is the traditional means of obtaining geoid- or mean sea level-related heights is slow, time-consuming and...Many applications in geodesy, hydrography and engineering require geoid-related heights. Spirit leveling which is the traditional means of obtaining geoid- or mean sea level-related heights is slow, time-consuming and costly. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) offer faster and relatively cheaper way of obtaining geoid-related heights when geoidal undulation is applied to ellipsoidal heights. However, difficulties involved in determining acceptable geoid height have seriously hampered the application of GNSS for leveling in Rivers State, thus necessitating the need to develop an acceptable geoid model which will serve as a means of conversion of GNSS-delivered ellipsoidal heights to their orthometric heights equivalent. In pursuance of this objective, a detailed gravimetric geoid has been evaluated for Rivers State, Nigeria. The computation of the geoid was carried out by the traditional remove-restore procedure. The Earth Geopotential Model 2008 (EGM08) was applied as the reference field for both the remove and restore parts of the procedures;spherical Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was employed for the evaluation of the Molodenskii’s integral formula for the height anomaly, (ζ) to yield the quasi-geoid;while the Residual Terrain Modelling (RTM) was done by prism integration. The classical gravimetric geoid over Rivers State was obtained from the rigorously evaluated quasi-geoid by adding the quasi-geoid to geoid (N?- ζ) correction it. The minimum and maximum geoid height values are 18.599 m and 20.114 m respectively with standard deviation of 0.345 m across the study area. Comparison of the gravimetric geoidal heights with the GPS/Leveling-derived geoidal heights of 13 stations across Rivers State, Nigeria showed that the absolute agreement with respect to the GPS/leveling datum is generally better than 7 cm root mean squares (r.m.s) error. Results also showed that combining both GPS heights and the computed Rivers State geoid model can give orthometric heights accurate to 3 cm post-fit using a 4-parameter empirical model. The geoid model can thus serve as a good alternative to traditional leveling when used with GPS leveling, particularly for third order leveling in the study area.展开更多
Height–diameter relationships are essential elements of forest assessment and modeling efforts.In this work,two linear and eighteen nonlinear height–diameter equations were evaluated to find a local model for Orient...Height–diameter relationships are essential elements of forest assessment and modeling efforts.In this work,two linear and eighteen nonlinear height–diameter equations were evaluated to find a local model for Oriental beech（Fagus orientalis Lipsky） in the Hyrcanian Forest in Iran.The predictive performance of these models was first assessed by different evaluation criteria： adjusted R^2（R^2_（adj））,root mean square error（RMSE）,relative RMSE（%RMSE）,bias,and relative bias（%bias） criteria.The best model was selected for use as the base mixed-effects model.Random parameters for test plots were estimated with different tree selection options.Results show that the Chapman–Richards model had better predictive ability in terms of adj R^2（0.81）,RMSE（3.7 m）,%RMSE（12.9）,bias（0.8）,%Bias（2.79） than the other models.Furthermore,the calibration response,based on a selection of four trees from the sample plots,resulted in a reduction percentage for bias and RMSE of about 1.6–2.7%.Our results indicate that the calibrated model produced the most accurate results.展开更多
When waves propagate from deep water to shallow water, wave heights and steepness increase and then waves roll back and break. This phenomenon is called surf. Currently, the present statistical calculation model of su...When waves propagate from deep water to shallow water, wave heights and steepness increase and then waves roll back and break. This phenomenon is called surf. Currently, the present statistical calculation model of surf was derived mainly from the wave energy conservation equation and the linear wave dispersion relation, but it cannot reflect accurately the process which is a rapid increasing in wave height near the broken point. So, the concept of a surf breaking critical zone is presented. And the nearshore is divided as deep water zone, shallow water zone, surf breaking critical zone and after breaking zone. Besides, the calculation formula for the height of the surf breaking critical zone has founded based on flume experiments, thereby a new statistical calculation model on the surf has been established. Using the new model, the calculation error of wave height maximum is reduced from 17.62% to 6.43%.展开更多
The control problems associated with vehicle height adjustment of electronically controlled air suspension （ECAS） still pose theoretical challenges for researchers, which manifest themselves in the publications on t...The control problems associated with vehicle height adjustment of electronically controlled air suspension （ECAS） still pose theoretical challenges for researchers, which manifest themselves in the publications on this subject over the last years. This paper deals with modeling and control of a vehicle height adjustment system for ECAS, which is an example of a hybrid dynamical system due to the coexistence and coupling of continuous variables and discrete events. A mixed logical dynamical （MLD） modeling approach is chosen for capturing enough details of the vehicle height adjustment process. The hybrid dynamic model is constructed on the basis of some assumptions and piecewise linear approximation for components nonlinearities. Then, the on-off statuses of solenoid valves and the piecewise approximation process are described by propositional logic, and the hybrid system is transformed into the set of linear mixed-integer equalities and inequalities, denoted as MLD model, automatically by HYSDEL. Using this model, a hybrid model predictive controller （HMPC） is tuned based on online mixed-integer quadratic optimization （MIQP）. Two different scenarios are considered in the simulation, whose results verify the height adjustment effectiveness of the proposed approach. Explicit solutions of the controller are computed to control the vehicle height adjustment system in realtime using an offline multi-parametric programming technology （MPT）, thus convert the controller into an equivalent explicit piecewise affine form. Finally, bench experiments for vehicle height lifting, holding and lowering procedures are conducted, which demonstrate that the HMPC can adjust the vehicle height by controlling the on-off statuses of solenoid valves directly. This research proposes a new modeling and control method for vehicle height adjustment of ECAS, which leads to a closed-loop system with favorable dynamical properties.展开更多
Background： Measurements of tree heights and diameters are essential in forest assessment and modelling. Tree heights are used for estimating timber volume, site index and other important variables related to forest ...Background： Measurements of tree heights and diameters are essential in forest assessment and modelling. Tree heights are used for estimating timber volume, site index and other important variables related to forest growth and yield, succession and carbon budget models. However, the diameter at breast height （dbh） can be more accurately obtained and at lower cost, than total tree height. Hence, generalized height-diameter （h-d） models that predict tree height from dbh, age and other covariates are needed. For a more flexible but biologically plausible estimation of covariate effects we use shape constrained generalized additive models as an extension of existing h-d model approaches. We use causal site parameters such as index of aridity to enhance the generality and causality of the models and to enable predictions under projected changeable climatic conditions. Methods： We develop unconstrained generalized additive models （GAM） and shape constrained generalized additive models （SCAM） for investigating the possible effects of tree-specific parameters such as tree age, relative diameter at breast height, and site-specific parameters such as index of aridity and sum of daily mean temperature during vegetation period, on the h-d relationship of forests in Lower Saxony, Germany. Results： Some of the derived effects, e.g. effects of age, index of aridity and sum of daily mean temperature have significantly non-linear pattern. The need for using SCAM results from the fact that some of the model effects show partially implausible patterns especially at the boundaries of data ranges. The derived model predicts monotonically increasing levels of tree height with increasing age and temperature sum and decreasing aridity and social rank of a tree within a stand, The definition of constraints leads only to marginal or minor decline in the model statistics like AIC An observed structured spatial trend in tree height is modelled via 2-dimensional surface fitting. Conclusions： We demonstrate that the SCAM approach allows optimal regression modelling flexibility similar to the standard GAM but with the additional possibility of defining specific constraints for the model effects. The longitudinal character of the model allows for tree height imputation for the current status of forests but also for future tree height prediction.展开更多
文摘Effectiveness and safety of mouthguards are greatly affected by its thickness. The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of model height and model position on the forming table on the mouthguard thickness in thermoforming using a circular frame. Mouthguards were thermoformed using 4.0-mm-thick ethylene-vinyl-acetate sheets and a vacuum forming machine. The sheet was sandwiched between circular frames and fixed to the clamp of the forming machine. Working models were two types of hard gypsum models trimmed so that the height of the anterior part was 25 mm (Model A) and 30 mm (Model B). The model was placed with its anterior rim positioned 40 mm (P40), 30 mm (P30), 20 mm (P20), or 10 mm (P10) from the front of the forming table. Differences in the reduction rate of the thickness due to the model height and model positions were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Differences depending on the model height were observed at P40 at the incisal edge and P30, P20, and P10 on the labial surface, and the reduction rate of the thickness was significantly smaller in Model A (P < 0.01). As the distance from the model anterior rim to the front of the forming table was smaller, the rate of the thickness of the incisal edge and the labial surface decreases became larger. The rate of decrease in the thickness of the cusp and buccal surface was the smallest at P20. This study indicated that the difference in the thickness of the single-layer mouthguard depending on the model position on the forming table is affected by the model height. However, that is only the anterior part of the mouthguard, and the difference in thickness reduction rate is less than 5%. Additionally, in order to perform stable forming, it is useful to increase the distance from the model to the frame, and it is important to position the part whose thickness is desired to be maintained in the center of the forming table.
基金supported by the project funded by International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable 740 Development Goals[Grant Number CBAS2022GSP07]Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,Chongqing Natural Science Foundation[Grant Number CSTB2022NSCQMSX 2069]Ministry of Education of China[Grant Number 19JZD023].
文摘Individual Tree Detection-and-Counting(ITDC)is among the important tasks in town areas,and numerous methods are proposed in this direction.Despite their many advantages,still,the proposed methods are inadequate to provide robust results because they mostly rely on the direct field investigations.This paper presents a novel approach involving high-resolution imagery and the Canopy-Height-Model(CHM)data to solve the ITDC problem.The new approach is studied in six urban scenes:farmland,woodland,park,industrial land,road and residential areas.First,it identifies tree canopy regions using a deep learning network from high-resolution imagery.It then deploys the CHM-data to detect treetops of the canopy regions using a local maximum algorithm and individual tree canopies using the region growing.Finally,it calculates and describes the number of individual trees and tree canopies.The proposed approach is experimented with the data from Shanghai,China.Our results show that the individual tree detection method had an average overall accuracy of 0.953,with a precision of 0.987 for woodland scene.Meanwhile,the R^(2) value for canopy segmentation in different urban scenes is greater than 0.780 and 0.779 for canopy area and diameter size,respectively.These results confirm that the proposed method is robust enough for urban tree planning and management.
基金supported by Grants from the National Science and Technology Pillar Program of China(No.2015DAD09B01)
文摘Fifty-three larch interspecific hybrid clones（Larix kaempferi × L.gmelini） and their parent clones were used for growth curve analysis of height variations.The growth curves of the 55 clones were ＇S＇-shaped and 36 exhibited similar curves as the male parent.The coefficients of the logistic models were higher than 0.943,indicating that our results were effective in the simulation of the growth curves.ANOVA analysis showed significant differences in height of different clones （P／0.01）.Average date of maximum height growth was Day 173,and average duration of rapid growth lasted for 50 days.Annual average increase in height was 9.7cm d^（-1） and daily average increase was 0.2 cm.The ratio of GR to the total annual increase in height ranged from 51.2 to 68.8%,with the average being 59.8%.There was a positive correlation between k values and plant heights which benefited from the evaluation of early plant height.There was also a positive correlation between GR（growth stage）,GD（plant height） and annual increase in height.These results are informative to the evaluation of the elite clone selection and provide a theoretical basis for breeding and management.
基金financially supported by the Special Fund for Basic Scientific Research of International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan(1632014003)National Natural Science Foundation of China(31101148 and 31300177)
文摘Understanding the relationship between tree height （H） and diameter at breast height （D） is vital to forest design, monitoring and biomass estimation. We developed an allometric equation model and tested its applicability for unevenly aged stands of moso bamboo forest at a regional scale. Field data were collected for 21 plots. Based on these data, we identified two strong power relationships： a corre- lation between the mean bamboo height （Hm） and the upper mean H （Hu）, and a correlation between the mean D （Din） and the upper mean D （Du）. Simulation results derived from the aUometric equation model were in good agreement with observed culms derived from the field data for the 21 stands, with a root-mean-square error and relative root-mean-square error of 1.40 m and 13.41%, respectively. These results demonstrate that the allometric equation model had a strong predictive power in the unevenly aged stands at a regional scale. In addition, the estimated average height-diameter （H-D） model for South Anhui Province was used to predict H for the same type of bamboo in Hunan Province based on the measured D, and the results were highly similar. The allometric equation model has multiple uses at the regional scale, including the evaluation of the variation in the H- D relationship among regions. The model describes the average H-D relationship without considering the effects caused by variation in site conditions, tree density and other factors.
文摘Many applications in geodesy, hydrography and engineering require geoid-related heights. Spirit leveling which is the traditional means of obtaining geoid- or mean sea level-related heights is slow, time-consuming and costly. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) offer faster and relatively cheaper way of obtaining geoid-related heights when geoidal undulation is applied to ellipsoidal heights. However, difficulties involved in determining acceptable geoid height have seriously hampered the application of GNSS for leveling in Rivers State, thus necessitating the need to develop an acceptable geoid model which will serve as a means of conversion of GNSS-delivered ellipsoidal heights to their orthometric heights equivalent. In pursuance of this objective, a detailed gravimetric geoid has been evaluated for Rivers State, Nigeria. The computation of the geoid was carried out by the traditional remove-restore procedure. The Earth Geopotential Model 2008 (EGM08) was applied as the reference field for both the remove and restore parts of the procedures;spherical Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was employed for the evaluation of the Molodenskii’s integral formula for the height anomaly, (ζ) to yield the quasi-geoid;while the Residual Terrain Modelling (RTM) was done by prism integration. The classical gravimetric geoid over Rivers State was obtained from the rigorously evaluated quasi-geoid by adding the quasi-geoid to geoid (N?- ζ) correction it. The minimum and maximum geoid height values are 18.599 m and 20.114 m respectively with standard deviation of 0.345 m across the study area. Comparison of the gravimetric geoidal heights with the GPS/Leveling-derived geoidal heights of 13 stations across Rivers State, Nigeria showed that the absolute agreement with respect to the GPS/leveling datum is generally better than 7 cm root mean squares (r.m.s) error. Results also showed that combining both GPS heights and the computed Rivers State geoid model can give orthometric heights accurate to 3 cm post-fit using a 4-parameter empirical model. The geoid model can thus serve as a good alternative to traditional leveling when used with GPS leveling, particularly for third order leveling in the study area.
基金This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public,commercial,or not-for-profit sectors
文摘Height–diameter relationships are essential elements of forest assessment and modeling efforts.In this work,two linear and eighteen nonlinear height–diameter equations were evaluated to find a local model for Oriental beech（Fagus orientalis Lipsky） in the Hyrcanian Forest in Iran.The predictive performance of these models was first assessed by different evaluation criteria： adjusted R^2（R^2_（adj））,root mean square error（RMSE）,relative RMSE（%RMSE）,bias,and relative bias（%bias） criteria.The best model was selected for use as the base mixed-effects model.Random parameters for test plots were estimated with different tree selection options.Results show that the Chapman–Richards model had better predictive ability in terms of adj R^2（0.81）,RMSE（3.7 m）,%RMSE（12.9）,bias（0.8）,%Bias（2.79） than the other models.Furthermore,the calibration response,based on a selection of four trees from the sample plots,resulted in a reduction percentage for bias and RMSE of about 1.6–2.7%.Our results indicate that the calibrated model produced the most accurate results.
基金The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 41076048 and 40906044
文摘When waves propagate from deep water to shallow water, wave heights and steepness increase and then waves roll back and break. This phenomenon is called surf. Currently, the present statistical calculation model of surf was derived mainly from the wave energy conservation equation and the linear wave dispersion relation, but it cannot reflect accurately the process which is a rapid increasing in wave height near the broken point. So, the concept of a surf breaking critical zone is presented. And the nearshore is divided as deep water zone, shallow water zone, surf breaking critical zone and after breaking zone. Besides, the calculation formula for the height of the surf breaking critical zone has founded based on flume experiments, thereby a new statistical calculation model on the surf has been established. Using the new model, the calculation error of wave height maximum is reduced from 17.62% to 6.43%.
基金Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.51375212)Priority Academic Program Development(PAPD)of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China+1 种基金Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China(Grant No.20133227130001)China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(Grant No.2014M551518)
文摘The control problems associated with vehicle height adjustment of electronically controlled air suspension （ECAS） still pose theoretical challenges for researchers, which manifest themselves in the publications on this subject over the last years. This paper deals with modeling and control of a vehicle height adjustment system for ECAS, which is an example of a hybrid dynamical system due to the coexistence and coupling of continuous variables and discrete events. A mixed logical dynamical （MLD） modeling approach is chosen for capturing enough details of the vehicle height adjustment process. The hybrid dynamic model is constructed on the basis of some assumptions and piecewise linear approximation for components nonlinearities. Then, the on-off statuses of solenoid valves and the piecewise approximation process are described by propositional logic, and the hybrid system is transformed into the set of linear mixed-integer equalities and inequalities, denoted as MLD model, automatically by HYSDEL. Using this model, a hybrid model predictive controller （HMPC） is tuned based on online mixed-integer quadratic optimization （MIQP）. Two different scenarios are considered in the simulation, whose results verify the height adjustment effectiveness of the proposed approach. Explicit solutions of the controller are computed to control the vehicle height adjustment system in realtime using an offline multi-parametric programming technology （MPT）, thus convert the controller into an equivalent explicit piecewise affine form. Finally, bench experiments for vehicle height lifting, holding and lowering procedures are conducted, which demonstrate that the HMPC can adjust the vehicle height by controlling the on-off statuses of solenoid valves directly. This research proposes a new modeling and control method for vehicle height adjustment of ECAS, which leads to a closed-loop system with favorable dynamical properties.
文摘Background： Measurements of tree heights and diameters are essential in forest assessment and modelling. Tree heights are used for estimating timber volume, site index and other important variables related to forest growth and yield, succession and carbon budget models. However, the diameter at breast height （dbh） can be more accurately obtained and at lower cost, than total tree height. Hence, generalized height-diameter （h-d） models that predict tree height from dbh, age and other covariates are needed. For a more flexible but biologically plausible estimation of covariate effects we use shape constrained generalized additive models as an extension of existing h-d model approaches. We use causal site parameters such as index of aridity to enhance the generality and causality of the models and to enable predictions under projected changeable climatic conditions. Methods： We develop unconstrained generalized additive models （GAM） and shape constrained generalized additive models （SCAM） for investigating the possible effects of tree-specific parameters such as tree age, relative diameter at breast height, and site-specific parameters such as index of aridity and sum of daily mean temperature during vegetation period, on the h-d relationship of forests in Lower Saxony, Germany. Results： Some of the derived effects, e.g. effects of age, index of aridity and sum of daily mean temperature have significantly non-linear pattern. The need for using SCAM results from the fact that some of the model effects show partially implausible patterns especially at the boundaries of data ranges. The derived model predicts monotonically increasing levels of tree height with increasing age and temperature sum and decreasing aridity and social rank of a tree within a stand, The definition of constraints leads only to marginal or minor decline in the model statistics like AIC An observed structured spatial trend in tree height is modelled via 2-dimensional surface fitting. Conclusions： We demonstrate that the SCAM approach allows optimal regression modelling flexibility similar to the standard GAM but with the additional possibility of defining specific constraints for the model effects. The longitudinal character of the model allows for tree height imputation for the current status of forests but also for future tree height prediction.
