The monoclonal antibodies consist of an innovative form of immunotherapy,capable of defeating several diseases,such as cancer.It is an emergent and important theme,that advances evaluation,challenges,and future perspe...The monoclonal antibodies consist of an innovative form of immunotherapy,capable of defeating several diseases,such as cancer.It is an emergent and important theme,that advances evaluation,challenges,and future perspectives with high relevance to identify gaps in recent studies and to consolidate this general theme in only one research.Its action in Chronic and Acute Lymphoid Leukemia has been evaluated in several clinical trials,which were selected between 2022 and 2023,in order to understand better the monoclonal antibodies that were most studied.The biopharmaceutical compounds Ibrutinib,Obinutuzumab,Rituximab,Venetoclax,and Inotuzumab Ozogamicin were the ones that most appeared in the most recent publications,indicating the importance of amplifying the studies.The action mechanisms that are used imply that their combined use has more success in the disease remission,showing a lower recurrence,adverse effects,and toxicity.Besides the adverse effects and overwhelming prices of the treatment,these immunotherapies results are promising,amplifying the survival rates,improving the patient’s life quality,and resulting in a precision medicine,aiming a custom treatment.The future perspectives on this therapy consist of its application in the public health system,with patients being able to be submitted to this treatment without any costs and receive a better life quality.展开更多
Dear Editor,Group B coxsackieviruses(CVBs),belonging to the genus Enterovirus(EV)of the family Picornaviridae,comprise six serotypes and share a typical picornaviral structure(Alhazmi et al.,2023).While most CVB infec...Dear Editor,Group B coxsackieviruses(CVBs),belonging to the genus Enterovirus(EV)of the family Picornaviridae,comprise six serotypes and share a typical picornaviral structure(Alhazmi et al.,2023).While most CVB infections are mild and self-limiting,they can cause severe or fatal illness,especially in children(Tracy and Gauntt,2008).展开更多
Using the purified VP1 protein of Asia 1 type foot-and-mouth disease virus as the antigen, the purified monoclonal antibody was labeled by the sodium periodate method and the monoclonal antibody competitive ELISA was ...Using the purified VP1 protein of Asia 1 type foot-and-mouth disease virus as the antigen, the purified monoclonal antibody was labeled by the sodium periodate method and the monoclonal antibody competitive ELISA was established in this study. Ten positive porcine foot-and-mouth disease serums and more than two hundreds negative serum were tested, and the results were the same as the background of samples. The sensitivity test and replicate test indicated that this method was stable and sensitive, which was suitable for monitoring Asia 1 type porcine foot-and-mouth disease virus antibody.展开更多
Encephalomyocarditis virus(EMCV),a potential zoonotic pathogen,poses significant socioeconomic and public health challenges across various host species.Although EMCV rarely triggers severe clinical symptoms in humans,...Encephalomyocarditis virus(EMCV),a potential zoonotic pathogen,poses significant socioeconomic and public health challenges across various host species.Although EMCV rarely triggers severe clinical symptoms in humans,its widespread prevalence and unique biological characteristics underscore the need for continuous surveillance and the development of effective therapeutics and prophylactics.In this study,we evaluated the neutralizing effects of a monoclonal antibody derived from the spleens of mice immunized with EMCV virus-like particles(VLPs),both in vitro and in vivo.Using recombinant DNA technology,we engineered a baculovirus system to express EMCVs P12A and 3C,facilitating the production of VLPs in Sf9 cells.These VLPs serve as antigens to immunize mice,leading to the isolation of the monoclonal antibody 45G3.This antibody exhibited high specificity for EMCV confor-mational epitopes,excluding linear epitopes,and demonstrated potent in vitro neutralizing activity,with an IC50 of 0.01873μg/mL.Immunoelectron microscopy(IEM)revealed a strong direct interaction between the 45G3 antibody and EMCV particles.Virus adsorption inhibition assays demonstrated that 45G3 effectively blocked viral attachment,thereby preventing further infection of host cells.These findings further support the notion of a robust interaction between the virus and the antibody.Moreover,in vivo assessments revealed that 45G3 significantly reduced viral loads in treated mice and improved survival outcomes following EMCV exposure.Additionally,posttreatment analysis revealed reduced tissue damage and a markedly decreased inflammatory response in the brain,indicating that the 45G3 antibody effectively blocked viral infection,thereby mitigating tissue damage and enhancing survival.These findings position 45G3 as a promising candidate for EMCV management and provide a strong foundation for the future development of antiviral drugs targeting this widespread virus.展开更多
Although African swine fever(ASF) has been prevalent for more than a century, it remains the number one swine disease that seriously endangers the global pig industry, and there is no effective means of prevention and...Although African swine fever(ASF) has been prevalent for more than a century, it remains the number one swine disease that seriously endangers the global pig industry, and there is no effective means of prevention and treatment(Wang et al. 2023). Due to its enormous economic and social impact, it is listed as a notifiable animal disease by the World Organization for Animal Health(Costard et al. 2013). Although ASF has been present in Sub-Saharan Africa since its first discovery in Kenya.展开更多
Porcine deltacoronavirus(PDCoV)is an emerging swine enteropathogenic coronavirus that can cause acute diarrhea and vomiting in newborn piglets and poses a potential risk for cross-species transmission.It is necessary ...Porcine deltacoronavirus(PDCoV)is an emerging swine enteropathogenic coronavirus that can cause acute diarrhea and vomiting in newborn piglets and poses a potential risk for cross-species transmission.It is necessary to develop an effective serological diagnostic tool for the surveillance of PDCoV infection and vaccine immunity effects.In this study,we developed a monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA(cELISA)that selected the purified recombinant PDCoV nucleocapsid(N)protein as the coating antigen to detect PDCoV antibodies.To evaluate the diagnostic performance of the cELISA,122 swine serum samples(39 positive and 83 negative)were tested and the results were compared with an indirect immunofluorescence assay(IFA)as the reference method.By receiver operating characteristic(ROC)curve analysis,the optimum cutoff value of percent inhibition(PI)was determined to be 26.8%,which showed excellent diagnostic performance,with an area under the curve(AUC)of 0.9919,a diagnostic sensitivity of 97.44%and a diagnostic specificity of 96.34%.Furthermore,there was good agreement between the cELISA and virus neutralization test(VNT)for the detection of PDCoV antibodies,with a coincidence rate of 92.7%,and theκanalysis showed almost perfect agreement(κ=0.851).Overall,the established cELISA showed good diagnostic performance,including sensitivity,specificity and repeatability,and can be used for diagnostic assistance,evaluating the response to vaccination and assessing swine herd immunity.展开更多
Lumpy skin disease(LSD)is a highly contagious disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus(LSDV)in bovines.Rapid and accurate diagnosis is very important to controll it.However,current commercial detection kits need to ...Lumpy skin disease(LSD)is a highly contagious disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus(LSDV)in bovines.Rapid and accurate diagnosis is very important to controll it.However,current commercial detection kits need to be improved in terms of sensitivity or specificity.This study aimed to develop a novel diagnostic competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(cELISA)based on the newly identified antigen gene LSDV034.The rLSDV034 protein was identified as a potential diagnostic antigen,and it was expressed,purified,and used to immunize BALB/c mice.Using laboratory-prepared indirect ELISA(iELISA),the positive cell lines were screened,and their blocking activity was further verified by competitive ELISA(cELISA).The cell line,1H7,was chosen to produce mouse ascites,which were purified for a monoclonal antibody(mAb,5.395 mg/mL).The heavy chain type of the 1H7 mAb was identified as IgG1a,and its light chain subtype was identified as κ.Furthermore,cELISA was developed to detect bovine serum antibodies,with rLSDV034(4μg/mL)as the coating antigen and HRP-1H7 mAb(1:300)as the competitive antibody.The cutoff value of cELISA was 55%,based on 32 negative bovine serum samples.The analytical sensitivity was 1:8,and no cross-reaction was detected with bovine viral diarrhea virus(BVDV),infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus(IBRV),Pasteurella multocida(P.multocida),or Mycoplasma bovis(M.bovis)from the serum samples.The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of cELISA were 98.46%(95%confidence interval,CI:91.7–100)and 100%(95%CI:89.1–100),respectively,based on the analysis of 30 LSDV-infected bovine serum samples,35 GTPV-vaccinated samples,and 32 negative samples.The overall coincidence of the cELISA with the virus neutralization test(VNT)reached 98.97%(95%CI:94.4–100).Furthermore,we used cELISA to analyze 230 clinical bovine serum samples(including 59 infected and 171 vaccinated samples)and found that the serum positivity rates of the immunized samples(on d 60 postimmunization)and infected samples were 77.78%(95%CI:70.8–83.8%)and 71.19%(95%CI:57.9–82.2),respectively.These results indicate that the developed cELISA is promising for detecting serum antibodies in naturally infected or vaccinated cattle.展开更多
P65 protein, the major immunodominant protein of Mycoplasma hyopneu-moniae （Mhp） exhibiting no cross-reaction with other mycoplasmas, is general y used as a target protein for Mhp detection. In this study, BALB/c mi...P65 protein, the major immunodominant protein of Mycoplasma hyopneu-moniae （Mhp） exhibiting no cross-reaction with other mycoplasmas, is general y used as a target protein for Mhp detection. In this study, BALB/c mice were immunized with prokaryotical y expressed P65 recombinant protein to prepare monoclonal anti-body. After screening with Mhp whole-cel protein and P65 protein, a specific hy-bridoma cel line, 3G12, was obtained by ELISA. Identification results indicated that the antibody secreted by 3G12 hybridoma cel s could react with P65 protein and Mhp whole-cel protein. According to indirect ELISA assay, 3G12 cel culture super-natant possessed a titer of 1∶12 800 against P65 protein and 1∶3 200 against Mhp whole-cel protein; 3G12 ascites possessed a titer of above 1∶4 000 000 against P65 protein and above 1∶20 000 against Mhp 168 whole-cel protein. After long-term in vitro culture and continuous freezing-thawing, 3G12 cel line could stably secrete antibodies. A monoclonal antibody against P65 protein and Mhp whole-cel protein was successful y obtained in the present study, which provided basis for further in-vestigating the pathogenic mechanism of Mhp and establishing diagnostic methods of Mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine （MPS）.展开更多
Five monoclonal antibodies（Mabs） to nuclear protein of avain influenza virus（AIV） were developed by syncretizing SP 2/0 and the spleen cells from BALB of mice immuized with H9 subtype AIV. Specificity of these Mab...Five monoclonal antibodies（Mabs） to nuclear protein of avain influenza virus（AIV） were developed by syncretizing SP 2/0 and the spleen cells from BALB of mice immuized with H9 subtype AIV. Specificity of these Mabs were identified by immunofluorescent assay（IFA） and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA）. These five Mabs which were named as AIV-NP-2C3, AIV-NP-6A5, AIV-NP-3 H9, AIV-NP-7B4, AIV-NP-2H4 could react with all viruses of AIV-H9 strains in tests. The result of Western blotting showed that only the 60 ku protein antigen of AIV-H9 could be recognized by the Mabs but never recognized by New castle disease virus, REV and infectious bursa disease virus. The result of preliminary application showed that avian influenza viruses could be deetected bv Mabs in IFA and ELISA. All these Mabs will probably play important roles in preventing and monitoring avian influenza viruses.展开更多
[Objective] The aim of the present study was to develop a direct immunofluorescence method for the diagnosis of canine distemper （CD） with FITC-conjugated monoclonal antibodies （FITC-McAb）.[ Metbod] The McAb again...[Objective] The aim of the present study was to develop a direct immunofluorescence method for the diagnosis of canine distemper （CD） with FITC-conjugated monoclonal antibodies （FITC-McAb）.[ Metbod] The McAb against CDV, designated as CE3, was purified with protein G and labeled with FITC through agitation method. After purification and identification, the optimal working concentration of FITC-labeled CE3 was determined. Then 61 clinical samples of suspected canine distemper were detected by direct immunofluorescence assay. [ Result] The absorption test, blocking test and specificity test showed that the labeled antibody had high specificity and sensitivity, but didn＇t have cross reaction with canine parvovirus （CPV）, canine parainfluenza virus （CPIV）, canine adenovirus （CAV） and rabies virus （RV）. The optimal working concentration was 1：80. The positive rate of clinical suspected samples was 48%. [ Conclusion] The direct immunofluorescence assay developed in this study was rapid, specific and convenient, and had great significance for the early diagnosis of canine distemper.展开更多
BALB/c mice were immunized using synthetic tandem polypeptide of Cap protein epitope of porcine circovirus type 2 （PCV2） as the antigen. By using lym-phocyte hybridoma technique, a hybridoma cellline stably secretin...BALB/c mice were immunized using synthetic tandem polypeptide of Cap protein epitope of porcine circovirus type 2 （PCV2） as the antigen. By using lym-phocyte hybridoma technique, a hybridoma cellline stably secreting monoclonal an-tibody against PCV2-rCap protein was successful y obtained and named as 670#. The ascites titer of the obtained monoclonal antibody was 1∶100 000. Western blot results showed that the monoclonal antibody could react with prokaryotical y ex-pressed PET32a-ORF2 recombinant protein, eukaryotical y expressed ORF1-ORF2 tandem protein and PCV2 whole virus celllysate. Indirect EILSA demonstrated that the monoclonal antibody could bind with ORF1-ORF2 tandem protein. Indirect im-munofluorescence assay （IFA） indicated that the monoclonal antibody could identify native PCV2 virus. The preparation of this monoclonal antibody provided technical tools for epitope analysis and molecular diagnosis of PCV2 virus.展开更多
A convenient competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) for ciprofloxacin(CPFX) was developed by using rabbit monoclonal antibodies(RabMAbs) against a hapten-protein conjugate of CPFX-bovine serum albumin(BS...A convenient competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) for ciprofloxacin(CPFX) was developed by using rabbit monoclonal antibodies(RabMAbs) against a hapten-protein conjugate of CPFX-bovine serum albumin(BSA).The indirect competitive ELISA of CPFX had a concentration at 50% inhibition(IC50) of 1.47 ng/ml and a limit of detection(LOD) of 0.095 ng/ml.The mAb exhibited some cross-reactivity,however,not so high with enrofloxacin(28.8%),ofloxacin(13.1%),norfloxacin(11.0%),fleroxacin(22.6%),and pefloxacin(20.4%).And it showed almost no cross-reactivity with other antibiotics or sulfonamides evaluated in this study.The competitive ELISA kit developed here could be used as a screening tool to detect and control illegal addition of CPFX in food products.This kit had been applied to milk detection and the recovery rates from samples spiked by CPFX were in a range of 63.02%-84.60%,with coefficients of variation of less than 12.2%.展开更多
The production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody (MAb AB10) against GA 3 glucoside as well as GA 3 is described. MAb AB10 was derived from an immunogen in which human serum albumin (HSA) was linked to G...The production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody (MAb AB10) against GA 3 glucoside as well as GA 3 is described. MAb AB10 was derived from an immunogen in which human serum albumin (HSA) was linked to GA 3 at carbon 3. This antibody showed high affinity for GA 3 glucoside as well as for 13 hydroxy gibberellins (GA 1, GA 3, GA 5, etc). The affinity of MAb AB10 for 13 hydroxy GAs was significantly reduced by methylation of the 7 oic acid but not by glycosylation of 3 hydroxyl group. Based on this antibody, both of competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for GA 3 glucoside and for GA 3 were developed. These two ELISAs displayed linear detection ranges from 0 2 pmol to 20 pmol. Using these assays, the fluctuation of GA 3 like and GA 3 glucoside like substances in the leaves of Rumex japonicus was investigated. The results indicated that the glycosylation of free GAs was connected with leaf senescence and that the function of 6 benzyl amino purine in retarding the leaf senescence was probably related to delaying the process of glycosylation of free GAs.展开更多
Salicylic acid (SA) is widely distributed in many monocots and dicots and has many physiological effects. It can induce heat production in the thermogenic inflorescences of Arum lily([1]), block the biosynthesis of et...Salicylic acid (SA) is widely distributed in many monocots and dicots and has many physiological effects. It can induce heat production in the thermogenic inflorescences of Arum lily([1]), block the biosynthesis of ethylene, and more attractively, it seems to be an important natural signal molecule in the induction of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in tobacco, cucumber and other plants([2,3]). Studies in recent years showed that SA was also intimately related to the resistance of plants to aboitic stress, for example, SA increased chilling resistance of maize seedlings. Hence, SA has been accepted as a kind of new plant hormones. Up to date, the quantification of SA usually has been performed by HPLC[4,5], which often needs a large quantity of sample and a verbose pretreatment. Compared to HPLC, immunoassays, including radio-immunoassays (RIA) and enzyme-immunoassays (EIA), are easy to perform and have been widely used in the quantification of other plant hormones, such as IAA([6]), ABA([7,8]), GAs([9]), cytokinins et al([10]), and jasmonic acid (JA)([11]), and other low-molecular-weight, none-immunogenic compounds in plants([12]). Till now, only an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for SA based on polyclonal antibodies (PAbs) has been developed by our group([13]), although Bennett et al([14]) had prepared SA PAbs using 4-aminosalicylic acid linked to KLH as immunogen in goat. However, the sensitivity of the ELISA we established formerly was relatively low, and also relatively larger quantity of sample is needed than other ELISAs for plant hormones. In this paper, an ELISA for SA based on monoclonal antibody raised against SA-NH-CH2-NH-KLH was introduced, and the fluctuation of SA content in cucumber leaves after inoculated with Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae was determined.展开更多
AIM: To investigate the role of P-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and dendritic cells (DCs)in liver/kidney of rats with hepatic/renal ischemiareperfusion injury and the preventive effect of anti-P...AIM: To investigate the role of P-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and dendritic cells (DCs)in liver/kidney of rats with hepatic/renal ischemiareperfusion injury and the preventive effect of anti-Pselectin lectin-EGF domain monoclonal antibody (anti-PsLEGFmAb) on the injury.METHODS: Rat models of hepatic and renal ischemiareperfusion were established. The rats were then divided into two groups, one group treated with anti-PsL-EGFmAb(n = 20) and control treated with saline (n = 20). Both groups were subdivided into four groups according to reperfusion time (1, 3, 6 and 24 h). The sham-operated group (n = 5) served as a control group. DCs were observed by the microscopic image method, while P-selectin and ICAM-1 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry.RESULTS: P-selectin increased significantly in hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells and renal tubular epithelial cells 1 h after ischemia-reperfusion, and the expression of ICAM-1 was up-regulated in hepatic sinusoid and renal vessels after 6 h. CD1a+CD80+DCs gradually increased in hepatic sinusoidal endothelium and renal tubules and interstitium 1 h after ischemia-reperfusion, and there was the most number of DCs in 24-h group. The localization of DCs was associated with rat hepatic/renal function.These changes became less significant in rats treated with anti-PsL-EGFmAb.CONCLUSION: DCs play an important role in immune pathogenesis of hepatic/renal ischemia-reperfusion injury.Anti-PsL-EGFmAb may regulate and inhibit local DC immigration and accumulation in liver/kidney.展开更多
Objective：Rabies is invariably a fatal encephalomyelitis that is considered to be a serious public health problem.It is necessary to develop standard rabies virus diagnostic tools,especially for diagnosing the strain...Objective：Rabies is invariably a fatal encephalomyelitis that is considered to be a serious public health problem.It is necessary to develop standard rabies virus diagnostic tools,especially for diagnosing the strains prevalent in China.Methods：Monoclonal antibodies（MAbs）specific to rabies virus were produced and characterized by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay（ELISA）,isotyping,affinity assay,immunofluorescence assay（IFA）,and immunocytochemistry.The MAb,whose affinity was higher for antigen,was used to establish an antigen captureELISA（AC-ELISA）detection system and test the efficiency by using clinical samples.Results：The heavy chain subclasses of two MAbs were all determined to be IgG2a.The 3C7 MAb showed stronger reactivity with rabies virus protein than the 2C5 MAb in an ELISA analysis,whereas the 3C7 MAb showed the highest affinity for antigen.IFA and immunocytochemistry results also indicated that the two MAbs could recognize rabies virus protein in its native form in cell samples.Data obtained using clinical samples showed that rabies virus could be detected by AC-ELISA detection system using the 3C7 MAb.Conclusion：It was potentially useful for the further development of highly sensitive,easily handled,and relatively rapid detection kits/tools for rabies surveillance in those areas where rabies is endemic,especially in China.展开更多
Anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody （Sc7301）-paclitaxel （TAX） immunoconjugate was pre- pared and its specific binding to tumor cells was investigated in this study. Sc7301 was conjugated to TAX by the active ester metho...Anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody （Sc7301）-paclitaxel （TAX） immunoconjugate was pre- pared and its specific binding to tumor cells was investigated in this study. Sc7301 was conjugated to TAX by the active ester method and then the TAX-Sc7301 immunoconjugate was obtained. After purification and labeling by Cyano-fluorescein isothiocyanate （FITC）, the specific binding of TAX-Sc7301 to HER2-positive tumor cells （SKOV3） and HER2-negative tumor cells （HepG2） was evaluated respectively. TAX-Sc7301 （20 nmol/L） showed distinct specific binding to SKOV3 cells rather than HepG2 cells. And the uptake of the immunoconjugate by SKOV3 cells was increased with the TAX-So7301 concentration （3-48 nmol/L） and the incubation time （P〈0.05）. It was concluded that the TAX-Sc7301 immunoconjugate is ootentially applicable as a targeted agent against HER2-10ositive tumor cells.展开更多
Embryonic stem （ES） cells are potent resources for cell therapy,and monoclonal antibodies （mAbs） against native cell surface markers of ES cells could be useful tools for therapeutic applications.Here,we report th...Embryonic stem （ES） cells are potent resources for cell therapy,and monoclonal antibodies （mAbs） against native cell surface markers of ES cells could be useful tools for therapeutic applications.Here,we report the development of a feasible approach,which could be used in mass production,for experimentally producing rabbit mAbs against native cell surface antigens on the cell surface.Two of the 14 mAbs,which were selected at random,could be bound to the cell surface antigens of mES cells.The immunocytochemistry （ICC） and Western blot results showed that mAb 39 recognises conformational epitopes.The target antigen of mAb 39 was then successfully purified using an improved immunoprecipitation approach in which mAb was bounded to intact mES cells before the cells were lysed.The LC-LTQ mass spectrum analysis showed that the target antigen of mAb 39 was Glut3.This result was further confirmed by Western blot using commercially available antibodies against Glut3.Further experiments showed that mAb 39 exhibited an antiproliferative effect on mES cells.We also found that Glut3 was differentially expressed among the mES cell population as detected by flow cytometry.展开更多
The improved tumoricidal effect of the radioatibody mixture ("cocktail") has been reported recently for the treatment of colon tumor. In the present study, we demonstrated the enhanced radioimmunotherapeutic...The improved tumoricidal effect of the radioatibody mixture ("cocktail") has been reported recently for the treatment of colon tumor. In the present study, we demonstrated the enhanced radioimmunotherapeutic efficacy of a monoclonal atibody (MAb) cocktail against human hepatocellular carcinoma. Therapeutic efficacy was determined by measuring the change in tumor size over a period, determining the percentage of growth inhibition of each treatment at various times after radioantibody therapy. boioimmunotherapy of SMMC-7721 human hepatoma xenografts in athymic nude mice with combination of 131I labeled Hepama-1 and 131Llabeled 9403 mouse MAbs was more effective than using either Hepeam-1 or 9403 Mab alone The MAb cocktail could target a greater number of hepstoma cells and increase the magnitude of hepatoma cen uptde of radioamibodies. The in vjtro results explain the enhanced effect of the MAb cocktail in in vjvo model system.展开更多
Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies have become one of the central components of the healthcare system and continuous efforts are made to bring innovative antibody therapeutics to patients in need.It is equally critical...Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies have become one of the central components of the healthcare system and continuous efforts are made to bring innovative antibody therapeutics to patients in need.It is equally critical to acquire sufficient knowledge of their molecular structure and biological functions to ensure the efficacy and safety by incorporating new detection approaches since new challenges like individual differences and resistance are presented.Conventional techniques for determining antibody disposition including plasma drug concentration measurements using LC-MS or ELISA,and tissue distribution using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence are now complemented with molecular imaging modalities like positron emission tomography and near-infrared fluorescence imaging to obtain more dynamic information,while methods for characterization of antibody’s interaction with the target antigen as well as visualization of its cellular and intercellular behavior are still under development.Recent progress in detecting therapeutic antibodies,in particular,the development of methods suitable for illustrating the molecular dynamics,is described here.展开更多
文摘The monoclonal antibodies consist of an innovative form of immunotherapy,capable of defeating several diseases,such as cancer.It is an emergent and important theme,that advances evaluation,challenges,and future perspectives with high relevance to identify gaps in recent studies and to consolidate this general theme in only one research.Its action in Chronic and Acute Lymphoid Leukemia has been evaluated in several clinical trials,which were selected between 2022 and 2023,in order to understand better the monoclonal antibodies that were most studied.The biopharmaceutical compounds Ibrutinib,Obinutuzumab,Rituximab,Venetoclax,and Inotuzumab Ozogamicin were the ones that most appeared in the most recent publications,indicating the importance of amplifying the studies.The action mechanisms that are used imply that their combined use has more success in the disease remission,showing a lower recurrence,adverse effects,and toxicity.Besides the adverse effects and overwhelming prices of the treatment,these immunotherapies results are promising,amplifying the survival rates,improving the patient’s life quality,and resulting in a precision medicine,aiming a custom treatment.The future perspectives on this therapy consist of its application in the public health system,with patients being able to be submitted to this treatment without any costs and receive a better life quality.
基金supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(82172248,82472253,82272310 and 32470996)the Xiamen Science and Technology Program(2022CXY0102)+1 种基金the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(20720250004)the Independent Research Project of the State Key Laboratory of Vaccine for Infectious Diseases(2024SKLVDzy03).
文摘Dear Editor,Group B coxsackieviruses(CVBs),belonging to the genus Enterovirus(EV)of the family Picornaviridae,comprise six serotypes and share a typical picornaviral structure(Alhazmi et al.,2023).While most CVB infections are mild and self-limiting,they can cause severe or fatal illness,especially in children(Tracy and Gauntt,2008).
基金Supported by National High-tech R&D Program (863) Subsidized Project(2006AA10A204)Special Fund for Basic Scientific Research-related Subsidy of State-level and Public-welfare Scientific Research Institutes~~
文摘Using the purified VP1 protein of Asia 1 type foot-and-mouth disease virus as the antigen, the purified monoclonal antibody was labeled by the sodium periodate method and the monoclonal antibody competitive ELISA was established in this study. Ten positive porcine foot-and-mouth disease serums and more than two hundreds negative serum were tested, and the results were the same as the background of samples. The sensitivity test and replicate test indicated that this method was stable and sensitive, which was suitable for monitoring Asia 1 type porcine foot-and-mouth disease virus antibody.
基金funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(grant number:2023YFC2306501)the Hubei Provincial Fund for Supporting High-Quality Development of the Seed Industry"Conservation and Utilization of Agricultural Germplasm Resources"Project(grant number:HBZY2023A001-16)。
文摘Encephalomyocarditis virus(EMCV),a potential zoonotic pathogen,poses significant socioeconomic and public health challenges across various host species.Although EMCV rarely triggers severe clinical symptoms in humans,its widespread prevalence and unique biological characteristics underscore the need for continuous surveillance and the development of effective therapeutics and prophylactics.In this study,we evaluated the neutralizing effects of a monoclonal antibody derived from the spleens of mice immunized with EMCV virus-like particles(VLPs),both in vitro and in vivo.Using recombinant DNA technology,we engineered a baculovirus system to express EMCVs P12A and 3C,facilitating the production of VLPs in Sf9 cells.These VLPs serve as antigens to immunize mice,leading to the isolation of the monoclonal antibody 45G3.This antibody exhibited high specificity for EMCV confor-mational epitopes,excluding linear epitopes,and demonstrated potent in vitro neutralizing activity,with an IC50 of 0.01873μg/mL.Immunoelectron microscopy(IEM)revealed a strong direct interaction between the 45G3 antibody and EMCV particles.Virus adsorption inhibition assays demonstrated that 45G3 effectively blocked viral attachment,thereby preventing further infection of host cells.These findings further support the notion of a robust interaction between the virus and the antibody.Moreover,in vivo assessments revealed that 45G3 significantly reduced viral loads in treated mice and improved survival outcomes following EMCV exposure.Additionally,posttreatment analysis revealed reduced tissue damage and a markedly decreased inflammatory response in the brain,indicating that the 45G3 antibody effectively blocked viral infection,thereby mitigating tissue damage and enhancing survival.These findings position 45G3 as a promising candidate for EMCV management and provide a strong foundation for the future development of antiviral drugs targeting this widespread virus.
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFD1800100)the earmarked fund for China Agriculture Research System (CARS-35)。
文摘Although African swine fever(ASF) has been prevalent for more than a century, it remains the number one swine disease that seriously endangers the global pig industry, and there is no effective means of prevention and treatment(Wang et al. 2023). Due to its enormous economic and social impact, it is listed as a notifiable animal disease by the World Organization for Animal Health(Costard et al. 2013). Although ASF has been present in Sub-Saharan Africa since its first discovery in Kenya.
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program(2023YFD1800501)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32373030,32202787)+5 种基金the S&T Program of Hebei(21322401D)the Jiangsu Province Natural Sciences Foundation(BK20221432,BK20210158)the Jiangsu Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Fund(CX(22)3028)the Special Project of Northern Jiangsu(SZ-LYG202109)the Open Fund of Shaoxing Academy of Biomedicine of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University(SXAB202215)the Open Fund of Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs(YDWS202213).
文摘Porcine deltacoronavirus(PDCoV)is an emerging swine enteropathogenic coronavirus that can cause acute diarrhea and vomiting in newborn piglets and poses a potential risk for cross-species transmission.It is necessary to develop an effective serological diagnostic tool for the surveillance of PDCoV infection and vaccine immunity effects.In this study,we developed a monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA(cELISA)that selected the purified recombinant PDCoV nucleocapsid(N)protein as the coating antigen to detect PDCoV antibodies.To evaluate the diagnostic performance of the cELISA,122 swine serum samples(39 positive and 83 negative)were tested and the results were compared with an indirect immunofluorescence assay(IFA)as the reference method.By receiver operating characteristic(ROC)curve analysis,the optimum cutoff value of percent inhibition(PI)was determined to be 26.8%,which showed excellent diagnostic performance,with an area under the curve(AUC)of 0.9919,a diagnostic sensitivity of 97.44%and a diagnostic specificity of 96.34%.Furthermore,there was good agreement between the cELISA and virus neutralization test(VNT)for the detection of PDCoV antibodies,with a coincidence rate of 92.7%,and theκanalysis showed almost perfect agreement(κ=0.851).Overall,the established cELISA showed good diagnostic performance,including sensitivity,specificity and repeatability,and can be used for diagnostic assistance,evaluating the response to vaccination and assessing swine herd immunity.
基金financially supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(#2022YFD1800701)the Key Research and Development Program of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region(#2021BEF02028)the Chinese Agricultural Research System of MOF and MARA(#CARS-37).
文摘Lumpy skin disease(LSD)is a highly contagious disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus(LSDV)in bovines.Rapid and accurate diagnosis is very important to controll it.However,current commercial detection kits need to be improved in terms of sensitivity or specificity.This study aimed to develop a novel diagnostic competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(cELISA)based on the newly identified antigen gene LSDV034.The rLSDV034 protein was identified as a potential diagnostic antigen,and it was expressed,purified,and used to immunize BALB/c mice.Using laboratory-prepared indirect ELISA(iELISA),the positive cell lines were screened,and their blocking activity was further verified by competitive ELISA(cELISA).The cell line,1H7,was chosen to produce mouse ascites,which were purified for a monoclonal antibody(mAb,5.395 mg/mL).The heavy chain type of the 1H7 mAb was identified as IgG1a,and its light chain subtype was identified as κ.Furthermore,cELISA was developed to detect bovine serum antibodies,with rLSDV034(4μg/mL)as the coating antigen and HRP-1H7 mAb(1:300)as the competitive antibody.The cutoff value of cELISA was 55%,based on 32 negative bovine serum samples.The analytical sensitivity was 1:8,and no cross-reaction was detected with bovine viral diarrhea virus(BVDV),infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus(IBRV),Pasteurella multocida(P.multocida),or Mycoplasma bovis(M.bovis)from the serum samples.The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of cELISA were 98.46%(95%confidence interval,CI:91.7–100)and 100%(95%CI:89.1–100),respectively,based on the analysis of 30 LSDV-infected bovine serum samples,35 GTPV-vaccinated samples,and 32 negative samples.The overall coincidence of the cELISA with the virus neutralization test(VNT)reached 98.97%(95%CI:94.4–100).Furthermore,we used cELISA to analyze 230 clinical bovine serum samples(including 59 infected and 171 vaccinated samples)and found that the serum positivity rates of the immunized samples(on d 60 postimmunization)and infected samples were 77.78%(95%CI:70.8–83.8%)and 71.19%(95%CI:57.9–82.2),respectively.These results indicate that the developed cELISA is promising for detecting serum antibodies in naturally infected or vaccinated cattle.
基金Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China(31100136,3111339)Independent Innovation Fund of Agricultural Science and Technology of Jiangsu Province[CX(13)3066]~~
文摘P65 protein, the major immunodominant protein of Mycoplasma hyopneu-moniae （Mhp） exhibiting no cross-reaction with other mycoplasmas, is general y used as a target protein for Mhp detection. In this study, BALB/c mice were immunized with prokaryotical y expressed P65 recombinant protein to prepare monoclonal anti-body. After screening with Mhp whole-cel protein and P65 protein, a specific hy-bridoma cel line, 3G12, was obtained by ELISA. Identification results indicated that the antibody secreted by 3G12 hybridoma cel s could react with P65 protein and Mhp whole-cel protein. According to indirect ELISA assay, 3G12 cel culture super-natant possessed a titer of 1∶12 800 against P65 protein and 1∶3 200 against Mhp whole-cel protein; 3G12 ascites possessed a titer of above 1∶4 000 000 against P65 protein and above 1∶20 000 against Mhp 168 whole-cel protein. After long-term in vitro culture and continuous freezing-thawing, 3G12 cel line could stably secrete antibodies. A monoclonal antibody against P65 protein and Mhp whole-cel protein was successful y obtained in the present study, which provided basis for further in-vestigating the pathogenic mechanism of Mhp and establishing diagnostic methods of Mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine （MPS）.
基金Supported by the National Key Technologies Research and Develop-ment Program of China during the 10th Five-Year Plan Period(2004BA519A05)Technologies Research and Development Program of China during the 10th Five-Year Plan Period in Jiangsu Province(BE2002346).~~
文摘Five monoclonal antibodies（Mabs） to nuclear protein of avain influenza virus（AIV） were developed by syncretizing SP 2/0 and the spleen cells from BALB of mice immuized with H9 subtype AIV. Specificity of these Mabs were identified by immunofluorescent assay（IFA） and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA）. These five Mabs which were named as AIV-NP-2C3, AIV-NP-6A5, AIV-NP-3 H9, AIV-NP-7B4, AIV-NP-2H4 could react with all viruses of AIV-H9 strains in tests. The result of Western blotting showed that only the 60 ku protein antigen of AIV-H9 could be recognized by the Mabs but never recognized by New castle disease virus, REV and infectious bursa disease virus. The result of preliminary application showed that avian influenza viruses could be deetected bv Mabs in IFA and ELISA. All these Mabs will probably play important roles in preventing and monitoring avian influenza viruses.
基金Supported by Science and Technology Foundation of PLA General Lo-gistics Department(06G138)~~
文摘[Objective] The aim of the present study was to develop a direct immunofluorescence method for the diagnosis of canine distemper （CD） with FITC-conjugated monoclonal antibodies （FITC-McAb）.[ Metbod] The McAb against CDV, designated as CE3, was purified with protein G and labeled with FITC through agitation method. After purification and identification, the optimal working concentration of FITC-labeled CE3 was determined. Then 61 clinical samples of suspected canine distemper were detected by direct immunofluorescence assay. [ Result] The absorption test, blocking test and specificity test showed that the labeled antibody had high specificity and sensitivity, but didn＇t have cross reaction with canine parvovirus （CPV）, canine parainfluenza virus （CPIV）, canine adenovirus （CAV） and rabies virus （RV）. The optimal working concentration was 1：80. The positive rate of clinical suspected samples was 48%. [ Conclusion] The direct immunofluorescence assay developed in this study was rapid, specific and convenient, and had great significance for the early diagnosis of canine distemper.
基金Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China(31302071)AgriculturalScience and Technology Independent Innovation Fund of Jiangsu Province(TechnicalInnovation)[CX(13)3065]~~
文摘BALB/c mice were immunized using synthetic tandem polypeptide of Cap protein epitope of porcine circovirus type 2 （PCV2） as the antigen. By using lym-phocyte hybridoma technique, a hybridoma cellline stably secreting monoclonal an-tibody against PCV2-rCap protein was successful y obtained and named as 670#. The ascites titer of the obtained monoclonal antibody was 1∶100 000. Western blot results showed that the monoclonal antibody could react with prokaryotical y ex-pressed PET32a-ORF2 recombinant protein, eukaryotical y expressed ORF1-ORF2 tandem protein and PCV2 whole virus celllysate. Indirect EILSA demonstrated that the monoclonal antibody could bind with ORF1-ORF2 tandem protein. Indirect im-munofluorescence assay （IFA） indicated that the monoclonal antibody could identify native PCV2 virus. The preparation of this monoclonal antibody provided technical tools for epitope analysis and molecular diagnosis of PCV2 virus.
基金Project supported by the National High-Tech R&D Program (863) of China (No. 2007AA10Z436)the Important National Science and Technology Specific Projects of China (No. 2009ZX03012-010B)
文摘A convenient competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) for ciprofloxacin(CPFX) was developed by using rabbit monoclonal antibodies(RabMAbs) against a hapten-protein conjugate of CPFX-bovine serum albumin(BSA).The indirect competitive ELISA of CPFX had a concentration at 50% inhibition(IC50) of 1.47 ng/ml and a limit of detection(LOD) of 0.095 ng/ml.The mAb exhibited some cross-reactivity,however,not so high with enrofloxacin(28.8%),ofloxacin(13.1%),norfloxacin(11.0%),fleroxacin(22.6%),and pefloxacin(20.4%).And it showed almost no cross-reactivity with other antibiotics or sulfonamides evaluated in this study.The competitive ELISA kit developed here could be used as a screening tool to detect and control illegal addition of CPFX in food products.This kit had been applied to milk detection and the recovery rates from samples spiked by CPFX were in a range of 63.02%-84.60%,with coefficients of variation of less than 12.2%.
文摘The production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody (MAb AB10) against GA 3 glucoside as well as GA 3 is described. MAb AB10 was derived from an immunogen in which human serum albumin (HSA) was linked to GA 3 at carbon 3. This antibody showed high affinity for GA 3 glucoside as well as for 13 hydroxy gibberellins (GA 1, GA 3, GA 5, etc). The affinity of MAb AB10 for 13 hydroxy GAs was significantly reduced by methylation of the 7 oic acid but not by glycosylation of 3 hydroxyl group. Based on this antibody, both of competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for GA 3 glucoside and for GA 3 were developed. These two ELISAs displayed linear detection ranges from 0 2 pmol to 20 pmol. Using these assays, the fluctuation of GA 3 like and GA 3 glucoside like substances in the leaves of Rumex japonicus was investigated. The results indicated that the glycosylation of free GAs was connected with leaf senescence and that the function of 6 benzyl amino purine in retarding the leaf senescence was probably related to delaying the process of glycosylation of free GAs.
基金SupportedbytheNationalNaturalScienceFoundationofChina (No .39870 473) .
文摘Salicylic acid (SA) is widely distributed in many monocots and dicots and has many physiological effects. It can induce heat production in the thermogenic inflorescences of Arum lily([1]), block the biosynthesis of ethylene, and more attractively, it seems to be an important natural signal molecule in the induction of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in tobacco, cucumber and other plants([2,3]). Studies in recent years showed that SA was also intimately related to the resistance of plants to aboitic stress, for example, SA increased chilling resistance of maize seedlings. Hence, SA has been accepted as a kind of new plant hormones. Up to date, the quantification of SA usually has been performed by HPLC[4,5], which often needs a large quantity of sample and a verbose pretreatment. Compared to HPLC, immunoassays, including radio-immunoassays (RIA) and enzyme-immunoassays (EIA), are easy to perform and have been widely used in the quantification of other plant hormones, such as IAA([6]), ABA([7,8]), GAs([9]), cytokinins et al([10]), and jasmonic acid (JA)([11]), and other low-molecular-weight, none-immunogenic compounds in plants([12]). Till now, only an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for SA based on polyclonal antibodies (PAbs) has been developed by our group([13]), although Bennett et al([14]) had prepared SA PAbs using 4-aminosalicylic acid linked to KLH as immunogen in goat. However, the sensitivity of the ELISA we established formerly was relatively low, and also relatively larger quantity of sample is needed than other ELISAs for plant hormones. In this paper, an ELISA for SA based on monoclonal antibody raised against SA-NH-CH2-NH-KLH was introduced, and the fluctuation of SA content in cucumber leaves after inoculated with Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae was determined.
基金Supported by Grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China, No. 39970340the Scientific Fund of the Chinese Ministry of Health, 98-2-283the Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai,No. 02ZB14041 and 034119916
文摘AIM: To investigate the role of P-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and dendritic cells (DCs)in liver/kidney of rats with hepatic/renal ischemiareperfusion injury and the preventive effect of anti-Pselectin lectin-EGF domain monoclonal antibody (anti-PsLEGFmAb) on the injury.METHODS: Rat models of hepatic and renal ischemiareperfusion were established. The rats were then divided into two groups, one group treated with anti-PsL-EGFmAb(n = 20) and control treated with saline (n = 20). Both groups were subdivided into four groups according to reperfusion time (1, 3, 6 and 24 h). The sham-operated group (n = 5) served as a control group. DCs were observed by the microscopic image method, while P-selectin and ICAM-1 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry.RESULTS: P-selectin increased significantly in hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells and renal tubular epithelial cells 1 h after ischemia-reperfusion, and the expression of ICAM-1 was up-regulated in hepatic sinusoid and renal vessels after 6 h. CD1a+CD80+DCs gradually increased in hepatic sinusoidal endothelium and renal tubules and interstitium 1 h after ischemia-reperfusion, and there was the most number of DCs in 24-h group. The localization of DCs was associated with rat hepatic/renal function.These changes became less significant in rats treated with anti-PsL-EGFmAb.CONCLUSION: DCs play an important role in immune pathogenesis of hepatic/renal ischemia-reperfusion injury.Anti-PsL-EGFmAb may regulate and inhibit local DC immigration and accumulation in liver/kidney.
基金supported by the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China(863 Program,No.2007AA02Z418)
文摘Objective：Rabies is invariably a fatal encephalomyelitis that is considered to be a serious public health problem.It is necessary to develop standard rabies virus diagnostic tools,especially for diagnosing the strains prevalent in China.Methods：Monoclonal antibodies（MAbs）specific to rabies virus were produced and characterized by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay（ELISA）,isotyping,affinity assay,immunofluorescence assay（IFA）,and immunocytochemistry.The MAb,whose affinity was higher for antigen,was used to establish an antigen captureELISA（AC-ELISA）detection system and test the efficiency by using clinical samples.Results：The heavy chain subclasses of two MAbs were all determined to be IgG2a.The 3C7 MAb showed stronger reactivity with rabies virus protein than the 2C5 MAb in an ELISA analysis,whereas the 3C7 MAb showed the highest affinity for antigen.IFA and immunocytochemistry results also indicated that the two MAbs could recognize rabies virus protein in its native form in cell samples.Data obtained using clinical samples showed that rabies virus could be detected by AC-ELISA detection system using the 3C7 MAb.Conclusion：It was potentially useful for the further development of highly sensitive,easily handled,and relatively rapid detection kits/tools for rabies surveillance in those areas where rabies is endemic,especially in China.
基金supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.30300429)
文摘Anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody （Sc7301）-paclitaxel （TAX） immunoconjugate was pre- pared and its specific binding to tumor cells was investigated in this study. Sc7301 was conjugated to TAX by the active ester method and then the TAX-Sc7301 immunoconjugate was obtained. After purification and labeling by Cyano-fluorescein isothiocyanate （FITC）, the specific binding of TAX-Sc7301 to HER2-positive tumor cells （SKOV3） and HER2-negative tumor cells （HepG2） was evaluated respectively. TAX-Sc7301 （20 nmol/L） showed distinct specific binding to SKOV3 cells rather than HepG2 cells. And the uptake of the immunoconjugate by SKOV3 cells was increased with the TAX-So7301 concentration （3-48 nmol/L） and the incubation time （P〈0.05）. It was concluded that the TAX-Sc7301 immunoconjugate is ootentially applicable as a targeted agent against HER2-10ositive tumor cells.
基金supported by the National Key Scientific Research Program of China,the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (No 2007947804)
文摘Embryonic stem （ES） cells are potent resources for cell therapy,and monoclonal antibodies （mAbs） against native cell surface markers of ES cells could be useful tools for therapeutic applications.Here,we report the development of a feasible approach,which could be used in mass production,for experimentally producing rabbit mAbs against native cell surface antigens on the cell surface.Two of the 14 mAbs,which were selected at random,could be bound to the cell surface antigens of mES cells.The immunocytochemistry （ICC） and Western blot results showed that mAb 39 recognises conformational epitopes.The target antigen of mAb 39 was then successfully purified using an improved immunoprecipitation approach in which mAb was bounded to intact mES cells before the cells were lysed.The LC-LTQ mass spectrum analysis showed that the target antigen of mAb 39 was Glut3.This result was further confirmed by Western blot using commercially available antibodies against Glut3.Further experiments showed that mAb 39 exhibited an antiproliferative effect on mES cells.We also found that Glut3 was differentially expressed among the mES cell population as detected by flow cytometry.
文摘The improved tumoricidal effect of the radioatibody mixture ("cocktail") has been reported recently for the treatment of colon tumor. In the present study, we demonstrated the enhanced radioimmunotherapeutic efficacy of a monoclonal atibody (MAb) cocktail against human hepatocellular carcinoma. Therapeutic efficacy was determined by measuring the change in tumor size over a period, determining the percentage of growth inhibition of each treatment at various times after radioantibody therapy. boioimmunotherapy of SMMC-7721 human hepatoma xenografts in athymic nude mice with combination of 131I labeled Hepama-1 and 131Llabeled 9403 mouse MAbs was more effective than using either Hepeam-1 or 9403 Mab alone The MAb cocktail could target a greater number of hepstoma cells and increase the magnitude of hepatoma cen uptde of radioamibodies. The in vjtro results explain the enhanced effect of the MAb cocktail in in vjvo model system.
基金We acknowledge financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(81903574)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(2019QNA7046,2020QNA7001).
文摘Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies have become one of the central components of the healthcare system and continuous efforts are made to bring innovative antibody therapeutics to patients in need.It is equally critical to acquire sufficient knowledge of their molecular structure and biological functions to ensure the efficacy and safety by incorporating new detection approaches since new challenges like individual differences and resistance are presented.Conventional techniques for determining antibody disposition including plasma drug concentration measurements using LC-MS or ELISA,and tissue distribution using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence are now complemented with molecular imaging modalities like positron emission tomography and near-infrared fluorescence imaging to obtain more dynamic information,while methods for characterization of antibody’s interaction with the target antigen as well as visualization of its cellular and intercellular behavior are still under development.Recent progress in detecting therapeutic antibodies,in particular,the development of methods suitable for illustrating the molecular dynamics,is described here.
