Studying the causes of summer(June–July–August)precipitation anomalies in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River(MLYR)and accurately predicting rainy season precipitation are important to society and the ...Studying the causes of summer(June–July–August)precipitation anomalies in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River(MLYR)and accurately predicting rainy season precipitation are important to society and the economy.In recent years,the sea surface temperature(SST)trend factor has been used to construct regression models for summer precipitation.In this study,through correlation analysis,winter SST anomaly predictors and the winter Central Pacific SST trend predictor(CPT)are identified as closely related to the following MLYR summer precipitation(YRSP).CPT can influence YRSP by inducing anomalous circulations over the North Pacific,guiding warm and moist air northward,and inhibiting the development of the anomalous anticyclone over the Northwest Pacific.This has improved the predictive skill of the seasonal regression model for YRSP.After incorporating the CPT,the correlation coefficient of the YRSP regression model improved by 40%,increasing from 0.45 to 0.63,and the root mean squared error decreased by 22%,from 1.15 to 0.90.展开更多
Synthetic aperture radar(SAR)aboard SEASAT was first launched in 1978.At the beginning of the 21st century,the Chinese remote sensing community recognized the urgent need to develop domestic SAR capabilities.Unlike sc...Synthetic aperture radar(SAR)aboard SEASAT was first launched in 1978.At the beginning of the 21st century,the Chinese remote sensing community recognized the urgent need to develop domestic SAR capabilities.Unlike scatterometers and al-timeters,space-borne SAR offers high-resolution images of the ocean,regardless of weather conditions or time of day.SAR imagery provides rich information about the sea surface,capturing complicated dynamic processes in the upper layers of the ocean,particular-ly in relation to tropical cyclones.Over the past four decades,the advantages of SAR have been increasingly recognized,leading to notable marine applications,especially in the development of algorithms for retrieving wind and wave data from SAR images.This study reviews the history,progress,and future outlook of SAR-based monitoring of sea surface wind and waves.In particular,the ap-plicability of various SAR wind and wave algorithms is systematically investigated,with a particular focus on their performance un-der extreme sea conditions.展开更多
The stratospheric Arctic vortex(SAV)plays a critical role in forecasting cold winters in the northern midlatitudes.In this study,we systematically examined the responses of SAV intensity to regional sea surface temper...The stratospheric Arctic vortex(SAV)plays a critical role in forecasting cold winters in the northern midlatitudes.In this study,we systematically examined the responses of SAV intensity to regional sea surface temperature(SST)changes using idealized SST patch experiments with a climate model.Our findings reveal that the SAV intensity is most sensitive to SST variations in the tropics and northern midlatitudes during boreal winter(December-January-February).Specifically,warming in the tropical Pacific and Atlantic leads to a weakening of the SAV,while warming in the tropical Indian Ocean,northern midlatitude Atlantic,and northwestern Pacific strengthens the SAV.Notably,the most substantial SAV weakening(strengthening)is triggered by warming in the tropical western Pacific(tropical central Indian Ocean),with a maximum magnitude of approximately 2.23 K K^(-1)(-1.77 K K^(-1)).The SST warming in the tropics influences the tropical convections,which excite Rossby wave trains.These wave trains can interfere with the climatological waves in the mid-high latitudes,while the SST warming in the northern midlatitudes can influence tropospheric planetary wavenumber-1 and wavenumber-2 directly.The changes in tropospheric planetary waves modulate the upward propagation of wave activities and impact the SAV intensity.Additionally,the response of the SAV to tropical SST changes,especially over the Indian Ocean and subtropics,exhibits significant nonlinearity.展开更多
The early life stages of marine organisms are pivotal in shaping community dynamics and resource availability.In this study,we focused on Portunus trituberculatus,a crustacean integral to China's fisheries economy...The early life stages of marine organisms are pivotal in shaping community dynamics and resource availability.In this study,we focused on Portunus trituberculatus,a crustacean integral to China's fisheries economy,and examined the effect of sea surface temperature(SST)in its critical early life stages on subsequent yields.To analyze the correlation between SST in different larval stages and the corresponding yield of P.trituberculatus,we simulated the transport and distribution of larvae from 2014 to 2022 by employing circulation models and Lagrangian particle tracking experiments(LPTE).In the five years(2014,2015,2016,2019,and 2020),particles were transported in a northwestern direction and moved in the direction of low SST.The distribution of particles in the megalopa stage(M stage)were located in the region of the lower temperature.In 2017,2018,and 2021,the particles were transported in a northeastern direction but they did not move with the gradient of low SST in these years,and the particles in the last M stage were located in the region where the SST was at the peak of the time period.In 2022,the distribution was observed for most of the particles in the southwestern part of Zhejiang coast,a small part of them were transported in the northwestern direction and a small amount of particles was distributed offshore along the northern area of the Zhejiang coast.The correlations between the SST at each stage of larvae with the corresponding year's yield showed that the yield of P.trituberculatus decreased significantly(R=-0.772,P=0.015)with increasing SST at the M stage.This study preliminarily explains the correlation between SST at the larval stage and the yield of P.trituberculatus and provides essential information for scientific stock enhancement in the future.展开更多
Land–atmosphere coupling and sea surface temperature(SST)anomalies both have essential impacts on weather and climate extremes.Based on the ERA5 reanalysis dataset and the CESM1.2.2 model,this study investigates the ...Land–atmosphere coupling and sea surface temperature(SST)anomalies both have essential impacts on weather and climate extremes.Based on the ERA5 reanalysis dataset and the CESM1.2.2 model,this study investigates the influence of land–atmosphere coupling on summer extreme hot-humid events(EHHE)over southern Eurasia under different SST backgrounds.The results suggest that coupling causes near-surface air temperature increases that exceed 0.5℃.From 1961 to 2020,the frequency of EHHE has continuously increased,and is closely related to soil moisture anomalies in the northern Indian Peninsula(IDP)and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River(YRB).Numerical simulations further demonstrate that land–atmosphere coupling raises the risk of EHHE by 25.4%.In a typical El Niño SST background state,intensified land–atmosphere coupling tends to produce notable increases in the frequency of EHHE.The dominant processes that land–atmosphere coupling affects the EHHE variations are evidently different between these two regions.Land surface thermal anomalies predominate in the IDP,while moisture conditions are more critical in the YRB.When warm SST anomalies exist,dry soil anomalies in the IDP are prominent,and evaporation is constrained,increasing sensible heat flux.Positive geopotential height anomalies are significant,combined with adiabatic warming induced by descending motion and a noticeable warm center in the near-surface atmosphere.The southward shift of the westerly jet enhances divergence over YRB.The anticyclonic circulation anomalies over the western Pacific are conducive to guiding moisture transport to the YRB,providing a favorable circulation background for the development of summer EHHE.展开更多
This study explores the impact of the tropical sea surface temperature(SST) independent of the preceding winter El Nino–Southern Oscillation(ENSO) events(ENSO-independent SST) on the interannual variability of the So...This study explores the impact of the tropical sea surface temperature(SST) independent of the preceding winter El Nino–Southern Oscillation(ENSO) events(ENSO-independent SST) on the interannual variability of the South China Sea Summer Monsoon(SCSSM) and the associated mechanisms. During summer, the ENSO-independent SST component dominates across tropical ocean regions. The tropical ENSO-independent SSTs during spring and summer in the Maritime Continent(MC), the equatorial central-eastern Pacific(CEP), and the tropical Atlantic Ocean(TAO) regions play a comparably significant role in the interannual variation of the SCSSM intensity, compared to the tropical SST dependent on the preceding winter ENSO. The ENSO-independent SST anomalies(SSTA) in the TAO during spring and summer exhibit significant persistence. They can influence the SCSSM through westward propagation of teleconnection, as well as through eastward-propagating Kelvin waves. In summer, the SSTA in the MC, CEP, and TAO regions contribute jointly to the variability of the SCSSM. The MC SSTA affects local convection and generates anomalous meridional circulation to impact the SCSSM intensity. The CEP SSTA directly influences the SCSSM via the Matsuno-Gill response mechanism and indirectly affects it via meridional circulation by modulating vertical motions over the MC through zonal circulation. The TAO SSTA impacts the SCSSM through both westward and eastward pathways, as well as by influencing zonal circulation patterns in the tropical and subtropical North Pacific. The results offer valuable insights into the factors influencing the interannual variability of the SCSSM intensity.展开更多
The successful launch of the Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System(CYGNSS)has opened an unprecedented opportunity for rapid observation of Wind Speed(WS)across vast oceanic regions.However,considerable debate per...The successful launch of the Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System(CYGNSS)has opened an unprecedented opportunity for rapid observation of Wind Speed(WS)across vast oceanic regions.However,considerable debate persists over the choice of input feature parameters for WS retrieval models based on CYGNSS data,and enhancing the accuracy of WS retrieval is a focal point of current research.To address the aforementioned problems,this study establishes a comprehensive CYGNSS wind speed retrieval feature parameter set through an in-depth analysis of CYGNSS data,thereby providing a reference and basis for selecting input features for WS retrieval models.Through this analysis,we identified three crucial observational features:the normalized bistatic radar cross section,leading edge slope,and signal-to-noise ratio.Using these features,we developed a WS retrieval model based on the geophysical model function for CYGNSS data.Furthermore,acknowledging the intrinsic interconnection between wind and wave dynamics,we incorporate significant wave height into the WS retrieval model to further improve the WS retrieval accuracy.Comparative assessments with datasets from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts,the Chinese-French Oceanography Satellite Scatterometer,and buoy WS data underscore the high accuracy of our model,demonstrating its utility as a valuable tool for research in ocean dynamics and marine environmental prediction.展开更多
For open sea conditions the sea surface roughness is described as a function of surface stress and wind speed over sea surface by Charnock relation. The sea surface roughnessn in the North-west Pacific Ocean is derive...For open sea conditions the sea surface roughness is described as a function of surface stress and wind speed over sea surface by Charnock relation. The sea surface roughnessn in the North-west Pacific Ocean is derived successfully using wind speed data estimated by the TOPEX satellite altimeter. From the results we find that： （1） the mean sea surface roughness in winter is greater than in summer; （2） compared with other sea areas, the sea surface roughness in the sea area east of Japan （ N30°- 40°, E135°- 150°） is larger than in other sea areas; （3） sea surface roughness in the South China Sea changes more greatly than that in the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea and East China Sea.展开更多
Currently, the deghosting of towed streamer seismic data assumes a flat sea level and a sea-surface reflection coefficient of-1; this decreases the precision of deghosting. A new method that considers the rough sea su...Currently, the deghosting of towed streamer seismic data assumes a flat sea level and a sea-surface reflection coefficient of-1; this decreases the precision of deghosting. A new method that considers the rough sea surface is proposed to suppress ghost reflections. The proposed deghosting method obtains the rough sea surface reflection coefficient using Gaussian statistics, and calculates the optimized deghosting operator in the r/p domain. The proposed method is closer to the actual sea conditions, offers an improved deghosting operator, removes the ghost reflections from marine towed seismic data, widens the bandwidth and restores the low-frequency information, and finally improves the signal-to- noise ratio and resolution of the seismic data.展开更多
The basic principles of sea surface temperature （SST） remote sensing using infrared and microwave radiometers are introduced, and the differences between two sensors for retrieving sea surface temperature are invest...The basic principles of sea surface temperature （SST） remote sensing using infrared and microwave radiometers are introduced, and the differences between two sensors for retrieving sea surface temperature are investigated. The ground resolution, atmospheric effect, sea surface wind, skin depth and so on have important influence on precision of sea surface temperature retrieved by two sensors. The better understanding of the advantage and disadvantage of sea surface temperature detected by infrared and microwave radiometers would help us to imply SST remote sensing data more effectively and correctly.展开更多
A Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model （HYCOM） is used to simulate the sea surface temperature of the Tropical and North Pacific. Based on the different combinations of two air-Sea flux data sets （COADS and ECMWF） and tw...A Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model （HYCOM） is used to simulate the sea surface temperature of the Tropical and North Pacific. Based on the different combinations of two air-Sea flux data sets （COADS and ECMWF） and two bulk parameter formulas （non-constant and constant）, four numerical experiments are carried out. The following conclusions can be deduced from the numerical results. （1） The numerical results using non-constant bulk parameter formula are much better than those using constant one. In the Pacific area from 40°N to 20°S, the annual average SST obtained from the experiment using non-constant bulk parameter formula is 0.21 ℃ higher than that from the satellite-based SST climatology （the pathfinder data）. However, the difference is 0.63 ℃ for the experiment when the using constant one. （2） HYCOM successfully simulates the monthly variation of climatological SST in tropical and north Pacific basins and monthly spatial variation of Western Pacific Warm Pool. Especially in the Pacific area from 40°N to 20°S, the difference of the seasonal averaged SST between pathfinder data and the result of experiment 2 （using COADS data set and non-constant bulk parameter formula） is only about 0.02 ℃. （3）The simulation results using different Air-Sea flux data are different and the difference is very large in some regions. In the northwest of the model region, the annual average SST obtained from experiment 2 （using COADS data set） is 1℃ higher than that obtained from experiment 4 （using ECMWF data set）. Contrarily, the result of experiment 4 is 1 ℃ larger than that of experiment 2 in the southeast of the model region. The largest difference is about 4 ℃ occurred near the area of 58°N, 140°E and the Bohai sea.展开更多
By dint of the summer precipitation data from 21 stations in the Dongting Lake region during 1960-2008 and the sea surface temperature(SST) data from NOAA,the spatial and temporal distributions of summer precipitation...By dint of the summer precipitation data from 21 stations in the Dongting Lake region during 1960-2008 and the sea surface temperature(SST) data from NOAA,the spatial and temporal distributions of summer precipitation and their correlations with SST are analyzed.The coupling relationship between the anomalous distribution in summer precipitation and the variation of SST has between studied with the Singular Value Decomposition(SVD) analysis.The increase or decrease of summer precipitation in the Dongting Lake region is closely associated with the SST anomalies in three key regions.The variation of SST in the three key regions has been proved to be a significant previous signal to anomaly of summer rainfall in Dongting region.展开更多
The SMOS(soil moisture and ocean salinity) mission undertaken by the European Space Agency(ESA) has provided sea surface salinity(SSS) measurements at global scale since 2009.Validation of SSS values retrieved from SM...The SMOS(soil moisture and ocean salinity) mission undertaken by the European Space Agency(ESA) has provided sea surface salinity(SSS) measurements at global scale since 2009.Validation of SSS values retrieved from SMOS data has been done globally and regionally.However,the accuracy of SSS measurements by SMOS in the China seas has not been examined in detail.In this study,we compared retrieved SSS values from SMOS data with in situ measurements from a South China Sea(SCS) expedition during autumn 2011.The comparison shows that the retrieved SSS values using ascending pass data have much better agreement with in situ measurements than the result derived from descending pass data.Accuracy in terms of bias and root mean square error(RMS) of the SSS retrieved using three different sea surface roughness models is very consistent,regardless of ascending or descending orbits.When ascending and descending measurements are combined for comparison,the retrieved SSS using a semi-empirical model shows the best agreement with in situ measurements,with bias-0.33 practical salinity units and RMS 0.74.We also investigated the impact of environmental conditions of sea surface wind and sea surface temperature on accuracy of the retrieved SSS.The SCS is a semi-closed basin where radio frequencies transmitted from the mainland strongly interfere with SMOS measurements.Therefore,accuracy of retrieved SSS shows a relationship with distance between the validation sites and land.展开更多
This paper assesses the interannual variabilities of simulated sea surface salinity(SSS)and freshwater flux(FWF)in the tropical Pacific from phases 5 and 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project(CMIP5 and CMIP6)...This paper assesses the interannual variabilities of simulated sea surface salinity(SSS)and freshwater flux(FWF)in the tropical Pacific from phases 5 and 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project(CMIP5 and CMIP6).The authors focus on comparing the simulated SSS and FWF responses to El Nino–Southern Oscillation(ENSO)from two generations of models developed by the same group.The results show that CMIP5 and CMIP6 models can perform well in simulating the spatial distributions of the SSS and FWF responses associated with ENSO,as well as their relationship.It is found that most CMIP6 models have improved in simulating the geographical distribution of the SSS and FWF interannual variability in the tropical Pacific compared to CMIP5 models.In particular,CMIP6 models have corrected the underestimation of the spatial relationship of the FWF and SSS variability with ENSO in the central-western Pacific.In addition,CMIP6 models outperform CMIP5 models in simulating the FWF interannual variability(spatial distribution and intensity)in the tropical Pacific.However,as a whole,CMIP6 models do not show improved skill scores for SSS interannual variability,which is due to their overestimation of the intensity in some models.Large uncertainties exist in simulating the interannual variability of SSS among CMIP5 and CMIP6 models and some improvements with respect to physical processes are needed.展开更多
Wanshan area has been chosen to be the specified field to calibrate and validate(Cal/Val)the HY-2 altimeter and its follow-on satellites.In March 2018,an experiment has been conducted to determine the sea surface heig...Wanshan area has been chosen to be the specified field to calibrate and validate(Cal/Val)the HY-2 altimeter and its follow-on satellites.In March 2018,an experiment has been conducted to determine the sea surface height(SSH)under the HY-2 A ground track(Pass No.203).A GPS towing-body(GPS-TB)was designed to measure the SSH covering an area of about 6 km×28 km wide centered on the HY-2 A altimeter satellite ground track.Three GPS reference stations,one tide gauge and a GPS buoy were placed in the research area,in order to process and resolve the kinematic solution and check the precision of the GPS-TB respectively.All the GPS data were calculated by the GAMIT/GLOBK software and TRACK module.The sea surface was determined by the GPS-TB solution and the tide gauge placed on Zhiwan Island.Then the sea surface of this area was interpolated by Arc GIS10.2 with ordinary Kriging method.The results showed that the precision of the GPS-TB is about 1.10 cm compared with the tide gauge placed nearby,which has an equivalent precision with the GPS buoy.The interpolated sea surface has a bias of–1.5–4.0 cm with standard deviation of 0.2–2.4 cm compared with the checking line.The gradient of the measured sea surface is about 1.62 cm/km along the HY-2 orbit which shows a good agreement compared with the CLS11 mean sea surface(MSS).In the Cal/Val of satellites,the sea surface between the tide gauge/GPS buoy and the footprint of altimeter can be improved by this work.展开更多
Sea level seasonal variations in the east of China seas from 2004 to 2006 are simulated by the advanced ROMS model. The results show similar sea level spatial features with TOPEX/Poseidon observations, with annual ran...Sea level seasonal variations in the east of China seas from 2004 to 2006 are simulated by the advanced ROMS model. The results show similar sea level spatial features with TOPEX/Poseidon observations, with annual ranges decreasing gradually from the sea coast to the Kuroshio region. By getting rid of wind stress in ROMS model, the simulated sea level results still show obvious seasonal variations. However, the phenomenon of sea level anomaly disappears in Min Zhe Current Coastwise （MZCF） and Su Bei current coastwise （SBCF）, and the change of it from coastal area to ocean recedes. The seal level difference between Bohai, Yellow Sea （BYS） and East China Sea （ECS） becomes weaker in spring and autumn. The annual differences decrease obviously, and the gradual change of annual ranges from seacoast to the Kuroshio almost disappears. The annual ranges in BYS are nearly identical. The annual range ratio without the wind stress to with the wind stress increases gradually from the sea coast to Kuroshio region.展开更多
In this paper,we will conclude the results of Bufeng-1(BF-1)A/B data processing,calibration workflow,and validation of the calibrated sea surface winds,land surface soil moisture,and sea surface height measurements.Si...In this paper,we will conclude the results of Bufeng-1(BF-1)A/B data processing,calibration workflow,and validation of the calibrated sea surface winds,land surface soil moisture,and sea surface height measurements.Since 2019,the BF-1 mission has operated in-orbit for over 4 years.The Earth reflected delay Doppler maps(DDMs)are continuously collected to perform global sea surface and land observations.At the same time,the intermediate frequency(IF)raw data are also obtained for 12 seconds every pass in diagnostic mode.To begin with,a brief description of the spaceborne Global Navigation Satellite System Reflectometry(GNSS-R)technique will be provided in the introduction.Next,we will present the overview of Chinese BF-1 mission and the data specifications used in our research.In the next section,the BF-1 mission-related spaceborne power calibration and validation are presented to show the support to power DDM observable production for sea surface and land surface applications.Then,the status of Chinese Beidou System(BDS)Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power(EIRP)acquisition programme is then introduced.Furthermore,the latest sea surface height(SSH)measurements results including two modes(group delay and carrier phase)and wind speed derivation based on machine learning(ML)method will be spatial-temporal aligned and validated with auxiliary datasets including Denmark Technology University(DTU)mean sea surface(MSS)products and European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF)ERA5 reanalysis.The previous published results of sea surface winds retrieval under Hurricane conditions and soil moisture retrieval are also reviewed for the BF-1 mission applications.Finally,the conclusion of BF-1 derived results will be discussed to draw out ongoing/future works.展开更多
This is an exploratory investigation to search for the presence of an acceleration in global sea surface temperature rise, which is essential to identify anthropogenic contributions to the climate change during the 20...This is an exploratory investigation to search for the presence of an acceleration in global sea surface temperature rise, which is essential to identify anthropogenic contributions to the climate change during the 20 th century. A weighted statistical model with an acceleration parameter was built progressively to reconstruct the variations in the global sea surface temperature data considering statistically significant confounders and autoregressive disturbances in the process. From the preliminary residual analysis of a weighted regression model, emerged a parsimonious model with first order autoregressive disturbances with a deterministic trend, acceleration and periodicity of 69 yr and its 138 yr subharmonic. The final model solution, selected from 29 alternative combinations of the model parameters using Mallows' s Cp metric, revealed a statistically significant deterministic trend, 0.40 ± 0.03C/c(p < 0.01), and acceleration, 0.67 ± 0.11C/c^2(p < 0.01) explaining 33% of the global sea surface temperature variations. The combined yearly trend and acceleration in global sea surface temperature as predicted by the model,exhibit a strong correlation with the yearly increase in the global CO^2 concentrations observed during the 20th century.展开更多
A summer-time shipboard meteorological survey is described in the Northwest Indian Ocean. Shipboard observations are used to evaluate a satellite-based sea surface temperature（SST）, and then find the main factors th...A summer-time shipboard meteorological survey is described in the Northwest Indian Ocean. Shipboard observations are used to evaluate a satellite-based sea surface temperature（SST）, and then find the main factors that are highly correlated with errors. Two satellite data, the first is remote sensing product of a microwave, which is a Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager（TMI）, and the second is merged data from the microwave and infrared satellite as well as drifter observations, which is Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis（OSTIA）. The results reveal that the daily mean SST of merged data has much lower bias and root mean square error as compared with that from microwave products. Therefore the results support the necessary of the merging infrared and drifter SST with a microwave satellite for improving the quality of the SST. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient between an SST error and meteorological parameters, which include a wind speed, an air temperature, a relative humidity, an air pressure, and a visibility. The results show that the wind speed has the largest correlation coefficient with the TMI SST error. However, the air temperature is the most important factor to the OSTIA SST error. Meanwhile,the relative humidity shows the high correlation with the SST error for the OSTIA product.展开更多
The aim of our study was to examine the contribution of surface waves from WAVEWATCH-III(WW3)to the variation in sea surface temperature(SST)in the Arctic Ocean.The simulated significant wave height(SWH)were validated...The aim of our study was to examine the contribution of surface waves from WAVEWATCH-III(WW3)to the variation in sea surface temperature(SST)in the Arctic Ocean.The simulated significant wave height(SWH)were validated against the products from Haiyang-2B(HY-2B)in 2021,obtaining a root mean squared error(RMSE)of 0.45 with a correlation of 0.96 and scatter index of 0.18.The wave-induced effects,i.e.,wave breaking and mixing induced by nonbearing waves resulting in changes in radiation stress and Stokes drift,were calculated from WW3,ERA-5 wind,SST,and salinity data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction and were taken as forcing fields in the Stony Brook Parallel Ocean Model.The results showed that an RMSE of 0.81℃ with wave-induced effects was less than the RMSE of 1.11℃ achieved without the wave term compared with the simulated SST with the measurements from Argos.Considering the four wave effects and sea ice freezing,the SST in the Arctic Ocean decreased by up to 1℃ in winter.Regression analysis revealed that the SWH was linear in SST(values without subtraction of waves)in summer and autumn,but this behavior was not observed in spring or winter due to the presence of sea ice.The interannual variation also presented a negative relationship between the difference in SST and SWH.展开更多
基金Guangdong Major Project of Basic and Applied Basic Research(2020B0301030004)National Natural Science Foundation of China(42175061)。
文摘Studying the causes of summer(June–July–August)precipitation anomalies in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River(MLYR)and accurately predicting rainy season precipitation are important to society and the economy.In recent years,the sea surface temperature(SST)trend factor has been used to construct regression models for summer precipitation.In this study,through correlation analysis,winter SST anomaly predictors and the winter Central Pacific SST trend predictor(CPT)are identified as closely related to the following MLYR summer precipitation(YRSP).CPT can influence YRSP by inducing anomalous circulations over the North Pacific,guiding warm and moist air northward,and inhibiting the development of the anomalous anticyclone over the Northwest Pacific.This has improved the predictive skill of the seasonal regression model for YRSP.After incorporating the CPT,the correlation coefficient of the YRSP regression model improved by 40%,increasing from 0.45 to 0.63,and the root mean squared error decreased by 22%,from 1.15 to 0.90.
基金supported by the National Nat-ural Science Foundation of China(No.42376174)the Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai(No.23ZR 1426900).
文摘Synthetic aperture radar(SAR)aboard SEASAT was first launched in 1978.At the beginning of the 21st century,the Chinese remote sensing community recognized the urgent need to develop domestic SAR capabilities.Unlike scatterometers and al-timeters,space-borne SAR offers high-resolution images of the ocean,regardless of weather conditions or time of day.SAR imagery provides rich information about the sea surface,capturing complicated dynamic processes in the upper layers of the ocean,particular-ly in relation to tropical cyclones.Over the past four decades,the advantages of SAR have been increasingly recognized,leading to notable marine applications,especially in the development of algorithms for retrieving wind and wave data from SAR images.This study reviews the history,progress,and future outlook of SAR-based monitoring of sea surface wind and waves.In particular,the ap-plicability of various SAR wind and wave algorithms is systematically investigated,with a particular focus on their performance un-der extreme sea conditions.
基金the financial support of National Key Research and Development Program of China(No.2022YFF0801701)National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grants 42375070)。
文摘The stratospheric Arctic vortex(SAV)plays a critical role in forecasting cold winters in the northern midlatitudes.In this study,we systematically examined the responses of SAV intensity to regional sea surface temperature(SST)changes using idealized SST patch experiments with a climate model.Our findings reveal that the SAV intensity is most sensitive to SST variations in the tropics and northern midlatitudes during boreal winter(December-January-February).Specifically,warming in the tropical Pacific and Atlantic leads to a weakening of the SAV,while warming in the tropical Indian Ocean,northern midlatitude Atlantic,and northwestern Pacific strengthens the SAV.Notably,the most substantial SAV weakening(strengthening)is triggered by warming in the tropical western Pacific(tropical central Indian Ocean),with a maximum magnitude of approximately 2.23 K K^(-1)(-1.77 K K^(-1)).The SST warming in the tropics influences the tropical convections,which excite Rossby wave trains.These wave trains can interfere with the climatological waves in the mid-high latitudes,while the SST warming in the northern midlatitudes can influence tropospheric planetary wavenumber-1 and wavenumber-2 directly.The changes in tropospheric planetary waves modulate the upward propagation of wave activities and impact the SAV intensity.Additionally,the response of the SAV to tropical SST changes,especially over the Indian Ocean and subtropics,exhibits significant nonlinearity.
基金Supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(No.2019YFD0901304)the Public Welfare Technology Application Research Project of Zhejiang(No.LGN21C190009)the Science and Technology Project of Zhoushan(No.2022C41003)。
文摘The early life stages of marine organisms are pivotal in shaping community dynamics and resource availability.In this study,we focused on Portunus trituberculatus,a crustacean integral to China's fisheries economy,and examined the effect of sea surface temperature(SST)in its critical early life stages on subsequent yields.To analyze the correlation between SST in different larval stages and the corresponding yield of P.trituberculatus,we simulated the transport and distribution of larvae from 2014 to 2022 by employing circulation models and Lagrangian particle tracking experiments(LPTE).In the five years(2014,2015,2016,2019,and 2020),particles were transported in a northwestern direction and moved in the direction of low SST.The distribution of particles in the megalopa stage(M stage)were located in the region of the lower temperature.In 2017,2018,and 2021,the particles were transported in a northeastern direction but they did not move with the gradient of low SST in these years,and the particles in the last M stage were located in the region where the SST was at the peak of the time period.In 2022,the distribution was observed for most of the particles in the southwestern part of Zhejiang coast,a small part of them were transported in the northwestern direction and a small amount of particles was distributed offshore along the northern area of the Zhejiang coast.The correlations between the SST at each stage of larvae with the corresponding year's yield showed that the yield of P.trituberculatus decreased significantly(R=-0.772,P=0.015)with increasing SST at the M stage.This study preliminarily explains the correlation between SST at the larval stage and the yield of P.trituberculatus and provides essential information for scientific stock enhancement in the future.
基金supported by the National Science Foundation of China(Grant Nos.42088101 and 42275172).
文摘Land–atmosphere coupling and sea surface temperature(SST)anomalies both have essential impacts on weather and climate extremes.Based on the ERA5 reanalysis dataset and the CESM1.2.2 model,this study investigates the influence of land–atmosphere coupling on summer extreme hot-humid events(EHHE)over southern Eurasia under different SST backgrounds.The results suggest that coupling causes near-surface air temperature increases that exceed 0.5℃.From 1961 to 2020,the frequency of EHHE has continuously increased,and is closely related to soil moisture anomalies in the northern Indian Peninsula(IDP)and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River(YRB).Numerical simulations further demonstrate that land–atmosphere coupling raises the risk of EHHE by 25.4%.In a typical El Niño SST background state,intensified land–atmosphere coupling tends to produce notable increases in the frequency of EHHE.The dominant processes that land–atmosphere coupling affects the EHHE variations are evidently different between these two regions.Land surface thermal anomalies predominate in the IDP,while moisture conditions are more critical in the YRB.When warm SST anomalies exist,dry soil anomalies in the IDP are prominent,and evaporation is constrained,increasing sensible heat flux.Positive geopotential height anomalies are significant,combined with adiabatic warming induced by descending motion and a noticeable warm center in the near-surface atmosphere.The southward shift of the westerly jet enhances divergence over YRB.The anticyclonic circulation anomalies over the western Pacific are conducive to guiding moisture transport to the YRB,providing a favorable circulation background for the development of summer EHHE.
基金National Natural Science Foundation of China(42175018, 42175020)Science and Technology Planning Project of Guangdong Province (2023B1212060019)+1 种基金Innovation Group Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)(311024001)Project supported by Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)(SML2023SP209)。
文摘This study explores the impact of the tropical sea surface temperature(SST) independent of the preceding winter El Nino–Southern Oscillation(ENSO) events(ENSO-independent SST) on the interannual variability of the South China Sea Summer Monsoon(SCSSM) and the associated mechanisms. During summer, the ENSO-independent SST component dominates across tropical ocean regions. The tropical ENSO-independent SSTs during spring and summer in the Maritime Continent(MC), the equatorial central-eastern Pacific(CEP), and the tropical Atlantic Ocean(TAO) regions play a comparably significant role in the interannual variation of the SCSSM intensity, compared to the tropical SST dependent on the preceding winter ENSO. The ENSO-independent SST anomalies(SSTA) in the TAO during spring and summer exhibit significant persistence. They can influence the SCSSM through westward propagation of teleconnection, as well as through eastward-propagating Kelvin waves. In summer, the SSTA in the MC, CEP, and TAO regions contribute jointly to the variability of the SCSSM. The MC SSTA affects local convection and generates anomalous meridional circulation to impact the SCSSM intensity. The CEP SSTA directly influences the SCSSM via the Matsuno-Gill response mechanism and indirectly affects it via meridional circulation by modulating vertical motions over the MC through zonal circulation. The TAO SSTA impacts the SCSSM through both westward and eastward pathways, as well as by influencing zonal circulation patterns in the tropical and subtropical North Pacific. The results offer valuable insights into the factors influencing the interannual variability of the SCSSM intensity.
基金The Fund of Key Laboratory of Space Ocean Remote Sensing and Application,Ministry of Natural Resources under contract No.2023CFO016the National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract No.61931025the Key Program of Joint Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China and Shandong Province under contract No.U22A20586.
文摘The successful launch of the Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System(CYGNSS)has opened an unprecedented opportunity for rapid observation of Wind Speed(WS)across vast oceanic regions.However,considerable debate persists over the choice of input feature parameters for WS retrieval models based on CYGNSS data,and enhancing the accuracy of WS retrieval is a focal point of current research.To address the aforementioned problems,this study establishes a comprehensive CYGNSS wind speed retrieval feature parameter set through an in-depth analysis of CYGNSS data,thereby providing a reference and basis for selecting input features for WS retrieval models.Through this analysis,we identified three crucial observational features:the normalized bistatic radar cross section,leading edge slope,and signal-to-noise ratio.Using these features,we developed a WS retrieval model based on the geophysical model function for CYGNSS data.Furthermore,acknowledging the intrinsic interconnection between wind and wave dynamics,we incorporate significant wave height into the WS retrieval model to further improve the WS retrieval accuracy.Comparative assessments with datasets from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts,the Chinese-French Oceanography Satellite Scatterometer,and buoy WS data underscore the high accuracy of our model,demonstrating its utility as a valuable tool for research in ocean dynamics and marine environmental prediction.
文摘For open sea conditions the sea surface roughness is described as a function of surface stress and wind speed over sea surface by Charnock relation. The sea surface roughnessn in the North-west Pacific Ocean is derived successfully using wind speed data estimated by the TOPEX satellite altimeter. From the results we find that： （1） the mean sea surface roughness in winter is greater than in summer; （2） compared with other sea areas, the sea surface roughness in the sea area east of Japan （ N30°- 40°, E135°- 150°） is larger than in other sea areas; （3） sea surface roughness in the South China Sea changes more greatly than that in the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea and East China Sea.
基金supported by the 12th Five Year Plan National Science and Technology Major Projects(No.20011ZX05023-003-002)Research projects of CNOOC(No.C/KJF JDCJF 006-2009)
文摘Currently, the deghosting of towed streamer seismic data assumes a flat sea level and a sea-surface reflection coefficient of-1; this decreases the precision of deghosting. A new method that considers the rough sea surface is proposed to suppress ghost reflections. The proposed deghosting method obtains the rough sea surface reflection coefficient using Gaussian statistics, and calculates the optimized deghosting operator in the r/p domain. The proposed method is closer to the actual sea conditions, offers an improved deghosting operator, removes the ghost reflections from marine towed seismic data, widens the bandwidth and restores the low-frequency information, and finally improves the signal-to- noise ratio and resolution of the seismic data.
文摘The basic principles of sea surface temperature （SST） remote sensing using infrared and microwave radiometers are introduced, and the differences between two sensors for retrieving sea surface temperature are investigated. The ground resolution, atmospheric effect, sea surface wind, skin depth and so on have important influence on precision of sea surface temperature retrieved by two sensors. The better understanding of the advantage and disadvantage of sea surface temperature detected by infrared and microwave radiometers would help us to imply SST remote sensing data more effectively and correctly.
文摘A Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model （HYCOM） is used to simulate the sea surface temperature of the Tropical and North Pacific. Based on the different combinations of two air-Sea flux data sets （COADS and ECMWF） and two bulk parameter formulas （non-constant and constant）, four numerical experiments are carried out. The following conclusions can be deduced from the numerical results. （1） The numerical results using non-constant bulk parameter formula are much better than those using constant one. In the Pacific area from 40°N to 20°S, the annual average SST obtained from the experiment using non-constant bulk parameter formula is 0.21 ℃ higher than that from the satellite-based SST climatology （the pathfinder data）. However, the difference is 0.63 ℃ for the experiment when the using constant one. （2） HYCOM successfully simulates the monthly variation of climatological SST in tropical and north Pacific basins and monthly spatial variation of Western Pacific Warm Pool. Especially in the Pacific area from 40°N to 20°S, the difference of the seasonal averaged SST between pathfinder data and the result of experiment 2 （using COADS data set and non-constant bulk parameter formula） is only about 0.02 ℃. （3）The simulation results using different Air-Sea flux data are different and the difference is very large in some regions. In the northwest of the model region, the annual average SST obtained from experiment 2 （using COADS data set） is 1℃ higher than that obtained from experiment 4 （using ECMWF data set）. Contrarily, the result of experiment 4 is 1 ℃ larger than that of experiment 2 in the southeast of the model region. The largest difference is about 4 ℃ occurred near the area of 58°N, 140°E and the Bohai sea.
基金Supported by The Special Foundation of Chinese Meteorological Bureau Climate Changes Program(200920)The Special Foundation of Hunan Major Scientific and Technological Research Program(2008FJ1006)~~
文摘By dint of the summer precipitation data from 21 stations in the Dongting Lake region during 1960-2008 and the sea surface temperature(SST) data from NOAA,the spatial and temporal distributions of summer precipitation and their correlations with SST are analyzed.The coupling relationship between the anomalous distribution in summer precipitation and the variation of SST has between studied with the Singular Value Decomposition(SVD) analysis.The increase or decrease of summer precipitation in the Dongting Lake region is closely associated with the SST anomalies in three key regions.The variation of SST in the three key regions has been proved to be a significant previous signal to anomaly of summer rainfall in Dongting region.
基金Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.41006110,41106155)
文摘The SMOS(soil moisture and ocean salinity) mission undertaken by the European Space Agency(ESA) has provided sea surface salinity(SSS) measurements at global scale since 2009.Validation of SSS values retrieved from SMOS data has been done globally and regionally.However,the accuracy of SSS measurements by SMOS in the China seas has not been examined in detail.In this study,we compared retrieved SSS values from SMOS data with in situ measurements from a South China Sea(SCS) expedition during autumn 2011.The comparison shows that the retrieved SSS values using ascending pass data have much better agreement with in situ measurements than the result derived from descending pass data.Accuracy in terms of bias and root mean square error(RMS) of the SSS retrieved using three different sea surface roughness models is very consistent,regardless of ascending or descending orbits.When ascending and descending measurements are combined for comparison,the retrieved SSS using a semi-empirical model shows the best agreement with in situ measurements,with bias-0.33 practical salinity units and RMS 0.74.We also investigated the impact of environmental conditions of sea surface wind and sea surface temperature on accuracy of the retrieved SSS.The SCS is a semi-closed basin where radio frequencies transmitted from the mainland strongly interfere with SMOS measurements.Therefore,accuracy of retrieved SSS shows a relationship with distance between the validation sites and land.
基金This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program on the Monitoring,Early Warning and Prevention of Major Natural Disasters[grant numbers 2019YFC1510004 and 2018YFC1506002]the Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Climate Change.
文摘This paper assesses the interannual variabilities of simulated sea surface salinity(SSS)and freshwater flux(FWF)in the tropical Pacific from phases 5 and 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project(CMIP5 and CMIP6).The authors focus on comparing the simulated SSS and FWF responses to El Nino–Southern Oscillation(ENSO)from two generations of models developed by the same group.The results show that CMIP5 and CMIP6 models can perform well in simulating the spatial distributions of the SSS and FWF responses associated with ENSO,as well as their relationship.It is found that most CMIP6 models have improved in simulating the geographical distribution of the SSS and FWF interannual variability in the tropical Pacific compared to CMIP5 models.In particular,CMIP6 models have corrected the underestimation of the spatial relationship of the FWF and SSS variability with ENSO in the central-western Pacific.In addition,CMIP6 models outperform CMIP5 models in simulating the FWF interannual variability(spatial distribution and intensity)in the tropical Pacific.However,as a whole,CMIP6 models do not show improved skill scores for SSS interannual variability,which is due to their overestimation of the intensity in some models.Large uncertainties exist in simulating the interannual variability of SSS among CMIP5 and CMIP6 models and some improvements with respect to physical processes are needed.
基金The National Key R&D Program of China under contract No.2018YFB0504900the National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 41406204 and 41501417Operational Support Service System For Natural Resources Satellite Remote Sensing。
文摘Wanshan area has been chosen to be the specified field to calibrate and validate(Cal/Val)the HY-2 altimeter and its follow-on satellites.In March 2018,an experiment has been conducted to determine the sea surface height(SSH)under the HY-2 A ground track(Pass No.203).A GPS towing-body(GPS-TB)was designed to measure the SSH covering an area of about 6 km×28 km wide centered on the HY-2 A altimeter satellite ground track.Three GPS reference stations,one tide gauge and a GPS buoy were placed in the research area,in order to process and resolve the kinematic solution and check the precision of the GPS-TB respectively.All the GPS data were calculated by the GAMIT/GLOBK software and TRACK module.The sea surface was determined by the GPS-TB solution and the tide gauge placed on Zhiwan Island.Then the sea surface of this area was interpolated by Arc GIS10.2 with ordinary Kriging method.The results showed that the precision of the GPS-TB is about 1.10 cm compared with the tide gauge placed nearby,which has an equivalent precision with the GPS buoy.The interpolated sea surface has a bias of–1.5–4.0 cm with standard deviation of 0.2–2.4 cm compared with the checking line.The gradient of the measured sea surface is about 1.62 cm/km along the HY-2 orbit which shows a good agreement compared with the CLS11 mean sea surface(MSS).In the Cal/Val of satellites,the sea surface between the tide gauge/GPS buoy and the footprint of altimeter can be improved by this work.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(contract No.41006002,No.41206013 and No.41106004)Open Fund of State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics,Second Institute of Oceanography of SOA(contract No.SOED1305)+3 种基金Open Fund of the Key Laboratory of Ocean Circulation and Waves,Chinese Academy of Sciences(contract No.KLOCAW1302)the Public Science and Technology Research Funds Projects of Ocean(contract No.200905001,No.201005019,and No.201205018)the Natural Science Foundation of State Ocean Administration(contract No.2012202,No.2012223,and No.2012224)Open Fund of Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography,MOE(contract of Song jun)
文摘Sea level seasonal variations in the east of China seas from 2004 to 2006 are simulated by the advanced ROMS model. The results show similar sea level spatial features with TOPEX/Poseidon observations, with annual ranges decreasing gradually from the sea coast to the Kuroshio region. By getting rid of wind stress in ROMS model, the simulated sea level results still show obvious seasonal variations. However, the phenomenon of sea level anomaly disappears in Min Zhe Current Coastwise （MZCF） and Su Bei current coastwise （SBCF）, and the change of it from coastal area to ocean recedes. The seal level difference between Bohai, Yellow Sea （BYS） and East China Sea （ECS） becomes weaker in spring and autumn. The annual differences decrease obviously, and the gradual change of annual ranges from seacoast to the Kuroshio almost disappears. The annual ranges in BYS are nearly identical. The annual range ratio without the wind stress to with the wind stress increases gradually from the sea coast to Kuroshio region.
基金supported by the ESA&NRSCC Dragon 5 Cooperation[Grant No.58070]the National Natural Science Foundation of China[Grant No.42101409]+2 种基金China Spacesat[Grant No.SK2020014]funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 with contributions by“European Union Next Generation EU/PRTR”[Grant No.RYC2019-027000-I]is also supported by Spanish National Research Council[Grant No.20215AT007].
文摘In this paper,we will conclude the results of Bufeng-1(BF-1)A/B data processing,calibration workflow,and validation of the calibrated sea surface winds,land surface soil moisture,and sea surface height measurements.Since 2019,the BF-1 mission has operated in-orbit for over 4 years.The Earth reflected delay Doppler maps(DDMs)are continuously collected to perform global sea surface and land observations.At the same time,the intermediate frequency(IF)raw data are also obtained for 12 seconds every pass in diagnostic mode.To begin with,a brief description of the spaceborne Global Navigation Satellite System Reflectometry(GNSS-R)technique will be provided in the introduction.Next,we will present the overview of Chinese BF-1 mission and the data specifications used in our research.In the next section,the BF-1 mission-related spaceborne power calibration and validation are presented to show the support to power DDM observable production for sea surface and land surface applications.Then,the status of Chinese Beidou System(BDS)Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power(EIRP)acquisition programme is then introduced.Furthermore,the latest sea surface height(SSH)measurements results including two modes(group delay and carrier phase)and wind speed derivation based on machine learning(ML)method will be spatial-temporal aligned and validated with auxiliary datasets including Denmark Technology University(DTU)mean sea surface(MSS)products and European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF)ERA5 reanalysis.The previous published results of sea surface winds retrieval under Hurricane conditions and soil moisture retrieval are also reviewed for the BF-1 mission applications.Finally,the conclusion of BF-1 derived results will be discussed to draw out ongoing/future works.
文摘This is an exploratory investigation to search for the presence of an acceleration in global sea surface temperature rise, which is essential to identify anthropogenic contributions to the climate change during the 20 th century. A weighted statistical model with an acceleration parameter was built progressively to reconstruct the variations in the global sea surface temperature data considering statistically significant confounders and autoregressive disturbances in the process. From the preliminary residual analysis of a weighted regression model, emerged a parsimonious model with first order autoregressive disturbances with a deterministic trend, acceleration and periodicity of 69 yr and its 138 yr subharmonic. The final model solution, selected from 29 alternative combinations of the model parameters using Mallows' s Cp metric, revealed a statistically significant deterministic trend, 0.40 ± 0.03C/c(p < 0.01), and acceleration, 0.67 ± 0.11C/c^2(p < 0.01) explaining 33% of the global sea surface temperature variations. The combined yearly trend and acceleration in global sea surface temperature as predicted by the model,exhibit a strong correlation with the yearly increase in the global CO^2 concentrations observed during the 20th century.
基金China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association Project under contract No.DY125-12-R-03the National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 41476021 and 41321004the Scientific Research Fund of Second Institute of Oceanography,State Oceanic Administration China under contract No.JT1205
文摘A summer-time shipboard meteorological survey is described in the Northwest Indian Ocean. Shipboard observations are used to evaluate a satellite-based sea surface temperature（SST）, and then find the main factors that are highly correlated with errors. Two satellite data, the first is remote sensing product of a microwave, which is a Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager（TMI）, and the second is merged data from the microwave and infrared satellite as well as drifter observations, which is Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis（OSTIA）. The results reveal that the daily mean SST of merged data has much lower bias and root mean square error as compared with that from microwave products. Therefore the results support the necessary of the merging infrared and drifter SST with a microwave satellite for improving the quality of the SST. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient between an SST error and meteorological parameters, which include a wind speed, an air temperature, a relative humidity, an air pressure, and a visibility. The results show that the wind speed has the largest correlation coefficient with the TMI SST error. However, the air temperature is the most important factor to the OSTIA SST error. Meanwhile,the relative humidity shows the high correlation with the SST error for the OSTIA product.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.42076238 and 42376174)the Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai(No.23ZR1426900).
文摘The aim of our study was to examine the contribution of surface waves from WAVEWATCH-III(WW3)to the variation in sea surface temperature(SST)in the Arctic Ocean.The simulated significant wave height(SWH)were validated against the products from Haiyang-2B(HY-2B)in 2021,obtaining a root mean squared error(RMSE)of 0.45 with a correlation of 0.96 and scatter index of 0.18.The wave-induced effects,i.e.,wave breaking and mixing induced by nonbearing waves resulting in changes in radiation stress and Stokes drift,were calculated from WW3,ERA-5 wind,SST,and salinity data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction and were taken as forcing fields in the Stony Brook Parallel Ocean Model.The results showed that an RMSE of 0.81℃ with wave-induced effects was less than the RMSE of 1.11℃ achieved without the wave term compared with the simulated SST with the measurements from Argos.Considering the four wave effects and sea ice freezing,the SST in the Arctic Ocean decreased by up to 1℃ in winter.Regression analysis revealed that the SWH was linear in SST(values without subtraction of waves)in summer and autumn,but this behavior was not observed in spring or winter due to the presence of sea ice.The interannual variation also presented a negative relationship between the difference in SST and SWH.
