Surface of TiO2 nanoparticles was modified with the in situ chemical oxidative polymerization of aniline. Polyaniline modified TiO2 nanoparticles （PANI-TiO2） were characterized with the FT-IR, XRD, SEM and TEM techn...Surface of TiO2 nanoparticles was modified with the in situ chemical oxidative polymerization of aniline. Polyaniline modified TiO2 nanoparticles （PANI-TiO2） were characterized with the FT-IR, XRD, SEM and TEM techniques. Results confirmed that PANI was grafted successfully on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles, therefore agglomeration of nanoparticles decreased dramatically. Polyvinyl chloride nanocomposites filled with 1 wt%-5 wt% of PANI-TiO2 and TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared via the solution blending method. PVC nanocomposites were analyzed with FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TG/DTA, DSC and tensile test techniques. Effect of PANI as surface modifier of nanoparticles was discussed according to the final properties of PVC nanocomposites. Results demonstrated that deposition of PANI on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles improved the interfacial adhesion between the constituents of nanocomposites, which resulted in better dispersion of nanoparticles in the PVC matrix. Also PVC/PANI-TiO2 nanocomposites showed higher thennal resistance, tensile strength and Young＇s modulus compared to those of unfilled PVC and PVC/TiO2 nanocomposites.展开更多
Polyaniline （PANI） composite nanotubes （90-130 nm in diameter） containing titanium dioxide （TiO2） nanoparticles （about 10 nm in diameter） were synthesized through a self-assembly process in the presence of a-n...Polyaniline （PANI） composite nanotubes （90-130 nm in diameter） containing titanium dioxide （TiO2） nanoparticles （about 10 nm in diameter） were synthesized through a self-assembly process in the presence of a-naphthalenesulfonic acid （a-NSA） as the dopant. It was found that PANI-TiO2 composites and PANI nanotubes both behaved with significant photocatalytic activities towards AZO dyes, during 2 h photocatalytic processes under natural light, the degradation ratio was 94.2% and 97.2% respectively （methyl orange and orange II）. The morphology of such products was characterized by SEM. The specific surface area of such composite nanotubes was 14.7 m2/g compared to normal polyaniline which was 0.27 m2/g. IR and X-ray diffraction characterizations showed that the chemical chain of the composite nanotubes was identical to that of the doped PANI. It may provide a new way for photodegradation of organic contaminants by using conjugated polymer with dimensional structure.展开更多
Rechargeable aqueous aluminum ion batteries(AIBs)are inspiring researchers’enthusiasm due to the low cost and high theoretical capacity of aluminum.Polyaniline(PANI)materials have the potential for aluminum ion stora...Rechargeable aqueous aluminum ion batteries(AIBs)are inspiring researchers’enthusiasm due to the low cost and high theoretical capacity of aluminum.Polyaniline(PANI)materials have the potential for aluminum ion storage due to the properties of its excellent conductivity and inherent theoretical capacity.However,the poor cycling stability and low loadings of PANI limit its application in energy storage.In this study,PANI-x electrodes with high mass loadings are successfully prepared by the electrodeposition method for reversible AlCl_(2)^(+)storage.Among them,the PANI-2 electrode possesses the highest areal capacity(0.59 and 0.51 mAh cm^(−2)at the current density of 0.5 and 10 mA cm^(−2))and excellent cycling stability in saturated AlCl3.Ex situ N 1s fitting spectra of PANI-2 and molecular dynamics simulations of 1 M,3 M,and saturated AlCl_(3)electrolytes demonstrate that PANI can achieve reversible redox reactions in saturated AlCl3,thereby achieving its excellent stability.Density functional theory calculations and ex situ spectra characterizations of PANI-2 demonstrate the insertion/de-insertion mechanism in the form of AlCl_(2)^(+)ions.In conclusion,PANI-2|Saturated AlCl_(3)|EG(exfoliated graphite foil)full cell is assembled successfully.This work provides promising guidance for the preparation of high-loading electrodes for AIBs.展开更多
In this study, we synthesized molybdenum disulfide/polyaniline（MoS2/PANI） nanocomposite via in situ polymerization of aniline in the presence of thin-layered MoS2. The as-prepared MoS2/PANI nanocomposite obtained an...In this study, we synthesized molybdenum disulfide/polyaniline（MoS2/PANI） nanocomposite via in situ polymerization of aniline in the presence of thin-layered MoS2. The as-prepared MoS2/PANI nanocomposite obtained an improved electrochemical performance due to the physisorption interaction between aromatic aniline and the basal plane of MoS2. Furthermore, we constructed a new kind of electrochemical sensor based on MoS2/PANI nanocomposite for the detection of chloramphenicol, which showed an excellent performance. The sensor has a high sensitivity and wide detection range from 1 ×10^（-7）mol/L to 1×10^（-4）mol/L, with a low detection limit of 6.9 × 10^（-8）mol/L.展开更多
Polyaniline （PAn） sensitized nanocrystalline TiO2 composites （TiO2/PAn） were successfully prepared and used as an efficient photocatalyst for the degradation of dye methylene blue （MB）. The results showed that P...Polyaniline （PAn） sensitized nanocrystalline TiO2 composites （TiO2/PAn） were successfully prepared and used as an efficient photocatalyst for the degradation of dye methylene blue （MB）. The results showed that PAn was able to sensitize TiO2 efficiently and the composite photocatalyst could be activated by absorbing both the ultraviolet and visible light （λ： 190 ～ 800 nm）, whereas pure TiO2 absorbed ultraviolet light only （λ 〈 380 nm）. Under the irradiation of natural light, MB could be degraded more efficiently on the TiO2/PAn composites than on the TiO2 Furthermore, it could be easily separated from the solution by simple sedimentation.展开更多
This work is focused on the combination of two building-blocks, nanocrystalline TiO2 particles and polyaniline conductive films （PAni）. The preparation of new nanostructured composite materials, displaying electron-...This work is focused on the combination of two building-blocks, nanocrystalline TiO2 particles and polyaniline conductive films （PAni）. The preparation of new nanostructured composite materials, displaying electron- and proton-conductive properties, to be used for the fabrication of new and superior energy storage devices was envisaged. The semiconducting TiO2 nanoparticles were obtained by means of a hydrothermal route. The PAni films were prepared on glassy carbon electrodes by electrochemical polymerization, under potential dynamic conditions. After characterization by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical techniques, the nanocrystalline particles were immobilized in the polymer matrix. The incorporation of the TiO2 was achieved using two distinct approaches： during the polymer growth or by deposition over previously prepared PAni films. The results demonstrate that the PAni morphology depends on the experimental conditions used during the polymer growth. After TiO2 immobilization, the best electrochemical response was obtained for the nanocomposite structure produced through the TiO2 incorporation after the PAni film synthesis. The modified electrodes were structurally and morphologically characterized and their electro-catalytic activity towards the hydrogen evolution reaction was analyzed. A new electrochemical performance related with the oxidation of molecular hydrogen entrapped in the PAni-TiO2 matrix was observed for the modified electrode after TiO2 incorporation. This behavior can be directly associated with the synergetic combination of the TiO2 and PAni, and is dependent on the amount of the semiconductor.展开更多
The p-NiO/n-TiO2/polyaniline composites were synthesized via in situ polymerization of aniline. The structure and morphology of the composites were characterized by means of X-ray diffraction（XRD）, scanning electron...The p-NiO/n-TiO2/polyaniline composites were synthesized via in situ polymerization of aniline. The structure and morphology of the composites were characterized by means of X-ray diffraction（XRD）, scanning electron microscopy（SEM）, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy（FTIR） and UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy. It was found that the p-n junction p-NiO/n-TiO2 particles were trapped in the polyaniline molecular matrix and the polyaniline was deposited on the surface of the particles to form a kind of flower cluster morphologies. The electrochemical behavior of the polyaniline composites was investigated. The electrochemical reactivity of the polyaniline was influenced by the p-NiO/n-TiO2 particles due to the effect of electron-hole pairs in these p-n junction particles. The reversibility of redox process and current intensity of the polyaniline composites with the changing of potential scan rate were also discussed.展开更多
Nanocrystalline titanium dioxide (TiO2) thin films were prepared by using sol-gel through spin- coating method. An assembly of indium tin oxide (ITO)/TiO2/polyaniline (PANI)/Ag was made in a sandwich panel structure. ...Nanocrystalline titanium dioxide (TiO2) thin films were prepared by using sol-gel through spin- coating method. An assembly of indium tin oxide (ITO)/TiO2/polyaniline (PANI)/Ag was made in a sandwich panel structure. The obtained junction shows rectifying behavior. Additionally, the I/V characteristic indicates that a P-N junction at nanocrystalline PANI/TiO2 interface has been created. In this experimental study, we depended only on the ratio between titanium and PANI in the process of preparing sol-gel (PANi/TiO2 at 20% wt). The largest open circuit voltage of 656 mV and short current density of 0.00315 mΑ/cm2 produce 0.0004% power conversion solar cell (η) under simulated solar radiation (50 mW/cm2). The thin films of PANI and titanium oxide (TiO2)/ PANI composites were synthesized by sol-gel technique. Pure TiO2 powder with nanoparticle size of less than 25 nm and PANI were synthesized through chemical oxidative polymerization of aniline monomers. The composite films were characterized by high resolution X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, field effect scanning electron microscopy, and UV-vis spectroscopy. The results were compared with the corresponding data on pure PANI films. The intensity of diffraction peaks for PANI/TiO2 composites is lower than that for TiO2. The characteristic of the FTIR peaks of pure PANI shifts to a higher wave number in TiO2/PANI composite, which is attributed to the interaction of TiO2 nanoparticles with PANI molecular chains.展开更多
Two-dimensional(2D) layered materials are widely applied in energy devices including lithium-ion battery and supercapacitor due to their unique properties,such as tunable interlayer structure,numerous active sites,lar...Two-dimensional(2D) layered materials are widely applied in energy devices including lithium-ion battery and supercapacitor due to their unique properties,such as tunable interlayer structure,numerous active sites,large aspect ratio versatile interlayer chemistry.In this work,2D layered tungstate acidlinked polyaniline(TALP) presented a fluid-in-solid structure,which allowed facile exchange of the interlayer fluid from moisture to conventional Li^(+) containing electrolyte.With fast and stable dual ion storage(Li^(+) and PF_(6)^(-)),TALP demonstrates high-rate volumetric capacity(39 mAh cm_(-3) at 2000 mA g^(-1)) and good stability(2000 cycles at 200 mA g^(-1)) within the working potential window of 1.5-4.5 V versus Li^(+)/Li.展开更多
A new environmental friendly catalyst,HaSiWrMo6O40/PAn was prepared and identified by means of FT-IR,XRD and TG/DTA.The optimum conditions have been found,that was,mass ratio of m(PAn):m(HaSiW6Mo6On.)was 1:1.25,volume...A new environmental friendly catalyst,HaSiWrMo6O40/PAn was prepared and identified by means of FT-IR,XRD and TG/DTA.The optimum conditions have been found,that was,mass ratio of m(PAn):m(HaSiW6Mo6On.)was 1:1.25,volume of methanol was 20 mL,and the reflux reaction time was 2h.The structural identity of Keggin units was preserved after the incorporation into polyaniline matrix.H4SiW6Mo6040/PAn was used as catalyst in catalytic synthesis of acetals and ketals.Effects of n(aldehyde(ketone)):n(glycol),catalyst dosage and reaction time on yield were investingated.Optimal conditions were:n(aldehyde(ketone)):n(glycol)=1.0:1.5;mass fraction of catalyst to reactants,0.5%;reaction time,1.0 h and cyclohexane as water-stripped reagent,15 mL.Under these conditions,yields of actels and ketals were 31.9%-91.6%.展开更多
The SnO2-polyaniline(SnO2-PAn) composite was prepared by microemulsion polymerization method using aniline,ammonium peroxodisulfate and SnO2 as starting materials.The SnO2-PAn composite was characterized by X-ray diff...The SnO2-polyaniline(SnO2-PAn) composite was prepared by microemulsion polymerization method using aniline,ammonium peroxodisulfate and SnO2 as starting materials.The SnO2-PAn composite was characterized by X-ray diffractometer,scanning electron microscope and electrochemical techniques.The results show that PAn in the composites is amorphous.PAn formed in the reaction is deposited preferentially on the SnO2 particles,giving a SnO2-PAn composite,in which SnO2 is coated with PAn.SnO2-PAn composite shows a reversible capacity of 657.6 mA·h/g and the capacity loss per cycle is only 0.092% after 80 cycles,suggesting that SnO2-PAn composite is a promising anode material for lithium ion batteries.展开更多
基金financially supported by the University of Tabriz
文摘Surface of TiO2 nanoparticles was modified with the in situ chemical oxidative polymerization of aniline. Polyaniline modified TiO2 nanoparticles （PANI-TiO2） were characterized with the FT-IR, XRD, SEM and TEM techniques. Results confirmed that PANI was grafted successfully on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles, therefore agglomeration of nanoparticles decreased dramatically. Polyvinyl chloride nanocomposites filled with 1 wt%-5 wt% of PANI-TiO2 and TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared via the solution blending method. PVC nanocomposites were analyzed with FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TG/DTA, DSC and tensile test techniques. Effect of PANI as surface modifier of nanoparticles was discussed according to the final properties of PVC nanocomposites. Results demonstrated that deposition of PANI on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles improved the interfacial adhesion between the constituents of nanocomposites, which resulted in better dispersion of nanoparticles in the PVC matrix. Also PVC/PANI-TiO2 nanocomposites showed higher thennal resistance, tensile strength and Young＇s modulus compared to those of unfilled PVC and PVC/TiO2 nanocomposites.
基金Funded in Part by the Research Fund of Hubei Provincial Department of Education,China(No.Q20121102)
文摘Polyaniline （PANI） composite nanotubes （90-130 nm in diameter） containing titanium dioxide （TiO2） nanoparticles （about 10 nm in diameter） were synthesized through a self-assembly process in the presence of a-naphthalenesulfonic acid （a-NSA） as the dopant. It was found that PANI-TiO2 composites and PANI nanotubes both behaved with significant photocatalytic activities towards AZO dyes, during 2 h photocatalytic processes under natural light, the degradation ratio was 94.2% and 97.2% respectively （methyl orange and orange II）. The morphology of such products was characterized by SEM. The specific surface area of such composite nanotubes was 14.7 m2/g compared to normal polyaniline which was 0.27 m2/g. IR and X-ray diffraction characterizations showed that the chemical chain of the composite nanotubes was identical to that of the doped PANI. It may provide a new way for photodegradation of organic contaminants by using conjugated polymer with dimensional structure.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.21906015)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(Grant No.N2205006 and N2225013).
文摘Rechargeable aqueous aluminum ion batteries(AIBs)are inspiring researchers’enthusiasm due to the low cost and high theoretical capacity of aluminum.Polyaniline(PANI)materials have the potential for aluminum ion storage due to the properties of its excellent conductivity and inherent theoretical capacity.However,the poor cycling stability and low loadings of PANI limit its application in energy storage.In this study,PANI-x electrodes with high mass loadings are successfully prepared by the electrodeposition method for reversible AlCl_(2)^(+)storage.Among them,the PANI-2 electrode possesses the highest areal capacity(0.59 and 0.51 mAh cm^(−2)at the current density of 0.5 and 10 mA cm^(−2))and excellent cycling stability in saturated AlCl3.Ex situ N 1s fitting spectra of PANI-2 and molecular dynamics simulations of 1 M,3 M,and saturated AlCl_(3)electrolytes demonstrate that PANI can achieve reversible redox reactions in saturated AlCl3,thereby achieving its excellent stability.Density functional theory calculations and ex situ spectra characterizations of PANI-2 demonstrate the insertion/de-insertion mechanism in the form of AlCl_(2)^(+)ions.In conclusion,PANI-2|Saturated AlCl_(3)|EG(exfoliated graphite foil)full cell is assembled successfully.This work provides promising guidance for the preparation of high-loading electrodes for AIBs.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 21275084 and 41476083)Doctoral Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China (No. 20113719130001)+1 种基金Scientific and Technical Development Project of Qingdao (No. 12-1-4-3-(23)-jch)Outstanding Adult-Young Scientific Research Encouraging Foundation of Shandong Province (No. BS2012CL013)
文摘In this study, we synthesized molybdenum disulfide/polyaniline（MoS2/PANI） nanocomposite via in situ polymerization of aniline in the presence of thin-layered MoS2. The as-prepared MoS2/PANI nanocomposite obtained an improved electrochemical performance due to the physisorption interaction between aromatic aniline and the basal plane of MoS2. Furthermore, we constructed a new kind of electrochemical sensor based on MoS2/PANI nanocomposite for the detection of chloramphenicol, which showed an excellent performance. The sensor has a high sensitivity and wide detection range from 1 ×10^（-7）mol/L to 1×10^（-4）mol/L, with a low detection limit of 6.9 × 10^（-8）mol/L.
文摘Polyaniline （PAn） sensitized nanocrystalline TiO2 composites （TiO2/PAn） were successfully prepared and used as an efficient photocatalyst for the degradation of dye methylene blue （MB）. The results showed that PAn was able to sensitize TiO2 efficiently and the composite photocatalyst could be activated by absorbing both the ultraviolet and visible light （λ： 190 ～ 800 nm）, whereas pure TiO2 absorbed ultraviolet light only （λ 〈 380 nm）. Under the irradiation of natural light, MB could be degraded more efficiently on the TiO2/PAn composites than on the TiO2 Furthermore, it could be easily separated from the solution by simple sedimentation.
基金supported by FCT-Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia under the project PTDC/CTM NAN/113021/2009O.C.Monteiro acknowledges PEst-OE/QUI/UI0612/2013 and Programme Ciencia 2007
文摘This work is focused on the combination of two building-blocks, nanocrystalline TiO2 particles and polyaniline conductive films （PAni）. The preparation of new nanostructured composite materials, displaying electron- and proton-conductive properties, to be used for the fabrication of new and superior energy storage devices was envisaged. The semiconducting TiO2 nanoparticles were obtained by means of a hydrothermal route. The PAni films were prepared on glassy carbon electrodes by electrochemical polymerization, under potential dynamic conditions. After characterization by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical techniques, the nanocrystalline particles were immobilized in the polymer matrix. The incorporation of the TiO2 was achieved using two distinct approaches： during the polymer growth or by deposition over previously prepared PAni films. The results demonstrate that the PAni morphology depends on the experimental conditions used during the polymer growth. After TiO2 immobilization, the best electrochemical response was obtained for the nanocomposite structure produced through the TiO2 incorporation after the PAni film synthesis. The modified electrodes were structurally and morphologically characterized and their electro-catalytic activity towards the hydrogen evolution reaction was analyzed. A new electrochemical performance related with the oxidation of molecular hydrogen entrapped in the PAni-TiO2 matrix was observed for the modified electrode after TiO2 incorporation. This behavior can be directly associated with the synergetic combination of the TiO2 and PAni, and is dependent on the amount of the semiconductor.
基金Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.51073064)the Science Foundation of Anhui Province, China(No.090414192)
文摘The p-NiO/n-TiO2/polyaniline composites were synthesized via in situ polymerization of aniline. The structure and morphology of the composites were characterized by means of X-ray diffraction（XRD）, scanning electron microscopy（SEM）, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy（FTIR） and UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy. It was found that the p-n junction p-NiO/n-TiO2 particles were trapped in the polyaniline molecular matrix and the polyaniline was deposited on the surface of the particles to form a kind of flower cluster morphologies. The electrochemical behavior of the polyaniline composites was investigated. The electrochemical reactivity of the polyaniline was influenced by the p-NiO/n-TiO2 particles due to the effect of electron-hole pairs in these p-n junction particles. The reversibility of redox process and current intensity of the polyaniline composites with the changing of potential scan rate were also discussed.
文摘Nanocrystalline titanium dioxide (TiO2) thin films were prepared by using sol-gel through spin- coating method. An assembly of indium tin oxide (ITO)/TiO2/polyaniline (PANI)/Ag was made in a sandwich panel structure. The obtained junction shows rectifying behavior. Additionally, the I/V characteristic indicates that a P-N junction at nanocrystalline PANI/TiO2 interface has been created. In this experimental study, we depended only on the ratio between titanium and PANI in the process of preparing sol-gel (PANi/TiO2 at 20% wt). The largest open circuit voltage of 656 mV and short current density of 0.00315 mΑ/cm2 produce 0.0004% power conversion solar cell (η) under simulated solar radiation (50 mW/cm2). The thin films of PANI and titanium oxide (TiO2)/ PANI composites were synthesized by sol-gel technique. Pure TiO2 powder with nanoparticle size of less than 25 nm and PANI were synthesized through chemical oxidative polymerization of aniline monomers. The composite films were characterized by high resolution X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, field effect scanning electron microscopy, and UV-vis spectroscopy. The results were compared with the corresponding data on pure PANI films. The intensity of diffraction peaks for PANI/TiO2 composites is lower than that for TiO2. The characteristic of the FTIR peaks of pure PANI shifts to a higher wave number in TiO2/PANI composite, which is attributed to the interaction of TiO2 nanoparticles with PANI molecular chains.
基金financially supported by the Australian Research Council Discovery Projects Discovery Project(DP190101008)Future Fellowship(FT190100058)+2 种基金ARC ITRP(IH180100020)the UNSW Scientia Program,and the UNSW-SJTU joint grantpartially supported by funding from the UNSW Digital Grid Futures Institute,UNSW,Sydney,under a cross disciplinary fund scheme。
文摘Two-dimensional(2D) layered materials are widely applied in energy devices including lithium-ion battery and supercapacitor due to their unique properties,such as tunable interlayer structure,numerous active sites,large aspect ratio versatile interlayer chemistry.In this work,2D layered tungstate acidlinked polyaniline(TALP) presented a fluid-in-solid structure,which allowed facile exchange of the interlayer fluid from moisture to conventional Li^(+) containing electrolyte.With fast and stable dual ion storage(Li^(+) and PF_(6)^(-)),TALP demonstrates high-rate volumetric capacity(39 mAh cm_(-3) at 2000 mA g^(-1)) and good stability(2000 cycles at 200 mA g^(-1)) within the working potential window of 1.5-4.5 V versus Li^(+)/Li.
文摘A new environmental friendly catalyst,HaSiWrMo6O40/PAn was prepared and identified by means of FT-IR,XRD and TG/DTA.The optimum conditions have been found,that was,mass ratio of m(PAn):m(HaSiW6Mo6On.)was 1:1.25,volume of methanol was 20 mL,and the reflux reaction time was 2h.The structural identity of Keggin units was preserved after the incorporation into polyaniline matrix.H4SiW6Mo6040/PAn was used as catalyst in catalytic synthesis of acetals and ketals.Effects of n(aldehyde(ketone)):n(glycol),catalyst dosage and reaction time on yield were investingated.Optimal conditions were:n(aldehyde(ketone)):n(glycol)=1.0:1.5;mass fraction of catalyst to reactants,0.5%;reaction time,1.0 h and cyclohexane as water-stripped reagent,15 mL.Under these conditions,yields of actels and ketals were 31.9%-91.6%.
基金Project(20376086) supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of ChinaProject(2005037700) supported by the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China+1 种基金Project(07A058) supported by the Scientific Research Fund of Hunan Provincial Education DepartmentProject(07JJ3014) supported by Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China
文摘The SnO2-polyaniline(SnO2-PAn) composite was prepared by microemulsion polymerization method using aniline,ammonium peroxodisulfate and SnO2 as starting materials.The SnO2-PAn composite was characterized by X-ray diffractometer,scanning electron microscope and electrochemical techniques.The results show that PAn in the composites is amorphous.PAn formed in the reaction is deposited preferentially on the SnO2 particles,giving a SnO2-PAn composite,in which SnO2 is coated with PAn.SnO2-PAn composite shows a reversible capacity of 657.6 mA·h/g and the capacity loss per cycle is only 0.092% after 80 cycles,suggesting that SnO2-PAn composite is a promising anode material for lithium ion batteries.
