Viewing traditional Chinese science as one of the tributaries to be merged into the grand ocean of modern/universal science,Joseph Needham placed great importance on the period of the Jesuits in the'Sciences of th...Viewing traditional Chinese science as one of the tributaries to be merged into the grand ocean of modern/universal science,Joseph Needham placed great importance on the period of the Jesuits in the'Sciences of the Heavens'section in volume 3 of Science and Civilisation in China.He considered that period a turning point when Chinese astronomy-a representative field of Chinese science-changed from its traditional form into universal/modern astronomy.Among the work of other historians of Chinese science,Joseph Needham's work helped foster a growing interest in the astronomical work of the Jesuits in China.After more than 50 years,as many of the details in Needham's original work have been gradually clarified and enhanced,a new picture of the Jesuits'contribution to Chinese astronomy has taken shape.In some important respects,that picture is quite contrary to Needham's overall claim about the role and result of Jesuit works in the development of astronomy in China,which has led to new questions that invite further investigation.展开更多
This presentation discusses the requests of modern pedagogy, and a possible bridging between the traditional teaching strategies drawn by the Ratio Studiorum of a unique and rare structure, and today＇s learning proce...This presentation discusses the requests of modern pedagogy, and a possible bridging between the traditional teaching strategies drawn by the Ratio Studiorum of a unique and rare structure, and today＇s learning process. It will argue the practical application and philosophy of education widely accepted and recognized as a part of curricular activities within the learning environments, though with no recognition of its origin. This paper aims to examine the indisputable contributions of the educational methods of the Jesuits in our time, although, the discipline has developed new fundamental, and new concepts such as self-esteem, self-awareness, and self-determination among others,展开更多
The idea of the hypothetical Magellanica Continent(Terra Australis Incognita)was introduced into China by the Jesuit missionaries during the seventeenth century.While not accepted by the Chinese government,it was affi...The idea of the hypothetical Magellanica Continent(Terra Australis Incognita)was introduced into China by the Jesuit missionaries during the seventeenth century.While not accepted by the Chinese government,it was affirmed and transmitted to the public by a few Chinese scholars,including Feng Yingjing,Cheng Bai'er,Zhang Huang,Xiong Mingyu,Xiong Renlin,You Yi,Zhou Yuqi,Jie Xuan,Wang Honghan,and Ye Zipei.Most of them communicated closely with the Jesuit missionaries,and several even helped the missionaries compose the maps.The concept was updated progressively by Matteo Ricci,Giulio Aleni,Johann Adam Schall von Bell,Francesco Sambiasi,and Ferdinand Verbiest.Chinese scholars copied the missionaries'relevant maps and textual introductions without much modification.However,they paid little attention to advancements in the idea,and many of them circulated outdated knowledge.It was not until the middle-and late-nineteenth century that Chinese scholars reexamined the correctness of this hypothetical continent.展开更多
This paper explores the pivotal role of Matteo Ricci(1583-1610)in promoting Sino-Western cultural exchange during his mission in late Ming China,focusing on the period from his arrival in 1583 until his death in 1610....This paper explores the pivotal role of Matteo Ricci(1583-1610)in promoting Sino-Western cultural exchange during his mission in late Ming China,focusing on the period from his arrival in 1583 until his death in 1610.Ricci’s unique approach of cultural accommodation,scientific knowledge dissemination,and religious dialogue positioned him as a bridge between two vastly different civilizations.This study analyzes Ricci’s methods of engagement with Chinese scholars,his introduction of Western science,and the impact of his religious and philosophical exchanges.Ricci’s strategy of adopting Chinese customs and intellectual traditions allowed him to foster trust and dialogue,making him one of the most successful missionaries in China.The paper further examines how Ricci’s translations of scientific works and his attempts to harmonize Christianity with Confucian values significantly influenced Chinese intellectual circles.By introducing advanced European knowledge in astronomy,mathematics,and geography,Ricci not only facilitated scientific exchange but also enhanced the Jesuits’reputation among Chinese scholars.Ricci’s enduring legacy is examined in the context of early global interactions,emphasizing his influence on subsequent Jesuit missions and the broader history of intercultural dialogue between East and West,highlighting the transformative power of empathy,respect,and intellectual curiosity in cross-cultural engagements.展开更多
Nitric acid or qiangshui强水(“strong liquid,”from lat.aqua fortis)was introduced to China multiple times by European missionaries during the Ming and Qing dynasties.Xu Guangqi徐光啟(1562-1633)was the first Chinese t...Nitric acid or qiangshui强水(“strong liquid,”from lat.aqua fortis)was introduced to China multiple times by European missionaries during the Ming and Qing dynasties.Xu Guangqi徐光啟(1562-1633)was the first Chinese to record related knowledge from his communication with Johann Schreck(1576-1630).Johann Adam Schall von Bell(1591-1666),Joachim Bouvet(1656-1730),and Matteo Ripa(1682-1746)independently described the substance to the Chinese in their writings,explaining production methods together with different applications such as separating and assaying of gold and silver,etching of iron or copperplates,and manufacturing of thermometers.This paper focuses on newly discovered Chinese materials,mainly from the Investigations of the Earth’s Interior(Kunyu gezhi坤輿格致,1640)by Schall von Bell and his Chinese collaborators,but also from the Record of Essentials of Inception and Completion(Kaicheng jiyao開成紀要)by Xu Guangqi.It analyzes different aspects of knowledge transmission processes including the identification of useful knowledge,the purpose of transmission,the sources of European knowledge,and the applied methods of translation and explanation.From these analyses we can better understand the reasons of their failure or success.展开更多
This article explores Adam Schall von Bell’s Investigations of the Earth’s Interior(Kunyu gezhi坤輿格致,1639-1640),a significant Jesuit work aimed at reforming the Chinese mining and smelting industry by introducing...This article explores Adam Schall von Bell’s Investigations of the Earth’s Interior(Kunyu gezhi坤輿格致,1639-1640),a significant Jesuit work aimed at reforming the Chinese mining and smelting industry by introducing relevant European technologies during the late Ming period.After being lost for centuries,the recent rediscovery of a partial manuscript housed in the Nanjing Library has reinvigorated scholarly interest in this treatise.The authors present findings on the manuscript’s origins,dating,and its reliance on Georgius Agricola’s De re metallica alongside other Renaissance works,such as those by Lazarus Ercker or Vannoccio Biringuccio.They challenge claims that the Investigations of the Earth’s Interior introduced the Western concept of“minerals”(kuangwu礦物)to China,arguing that the term retained its traditional meaning of“ores and materials.”Additionally,the article presents new historical documents revealing attempts to implement the treatise’s methods and the bureaucratic challenges that prevented its widespread adoption.These topics shed light on the Investigations of the Earth’s Interior’s role in early global knowledge transmission and its potential impact on China’s mining and metallurgical practices during the Ming-Qing transition.展开更多
In 2015, a previously unknown manuscript was discovered in the Nanjing Library. It contained a Chinese mining and metallurgy handbook, and was identified as a copy of the Kunyu gezhi 坤輿格致, known as the lost Chines...In 2015, a previously unknown manuscript was discovered in the Nanjing Library. It contained a Chinese mining and metallurgy handbook, and was identified as a copy of the Kunyu gezhi 坤輿格致, known as the lost Chinese translation of Georgius Agricola’s(1494–1555) De re metallica(1556) by Jesuit Adam Schall von Bell(1592–1666). A closer look at the text, however, reveals that, besides parts of Agricola’s book, content by at least four other European authors was included: Vannoccio Biringuccio(1480–1539), Modestinus Fachs(?–before 1595), Lazarus Ercker(1528/30–1594), and José de Acosta(1539/40–1599/1600). This study demonstrates how their books became available in China, why they were selected as sources for the Kunyu gezhi, and how they were eventually used and incorporated. From this, it becomes apparent that Schall and his collaborators spared no effort to conduct this ambitious knowledge transfer project, and to present European technology at its best to the emperor.展开更多
This research is derived from my doctoral thesis undertaken at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, which provided the first in-depth comparison of printed representations of Catholic and Protestant martyrdom in Tu...This research is derived from my doctoral thesis undertaken at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, which provided the first in-depth comparison of printed representations of Catholic and Protestant martyrdom in Tudor England since the work of McGrath and Dickens during the 1960s. In this article, a martyr is defined as one who bore witness to persecution during the Tudor Reformation （c. 1530-1600）, and who ultimately died for his or her beliefs rather than abjure. The main themes discussed were issues of continuity and change： To what extent did Protestant depictions of martyrs draw upon pre-Reformation ideas？ Were they a radical break from the past; or did they represent gradual evolution and transition in which some older beliefs were perpetuated, some were reinterpreted allegorically, and others were abandoned and replaced with new representations？ Novel contributions to the historiography include the representation of non-martyrs （individuals who failed to gain full recognition in Catholic or Protestant martyrologies）, Puritan efforts to supplant pre-Reformation rituals derived from what Duffy termed the cult of saints with abstract Old Testament inspired sermons, and the depiction of persecutors＇ untimely deaths as evidence of divine providence and the illegitimacy of rival churches. Although firmly grounded in history, my methodology also incorporated elements from other disciplines, especially gender studies, death studies, religion, philosophy, and some aspects of art history. In particular, I have examined the language of inversion, where exceptionally courageous female martyrs were portrayed with the masculine virtues of courage, analytical rationality or self-control, and allegedly negative feminine traits such as cowardice, deceit, treachery, or sexual misconduct were used to shame and discredit clergymen from rival religious groups or sects. This article will focus upon Catholic and Protestant efforts to identify 16th century martyrs with the saints of the early church, either literally or allegorically, with the aim of gaining reassurance from familiar historical patterns, and challenging the legitimacy of rival churches.展开更多
For a period of some 10 years, two Roman Catholic priests, James Gillis, CSP and John LaFarge, SJ, became unlikely collaborators and colleagues in their common effort to bring greater justice to Black Catholics in the...For a period of some 10 years, two Roman Catholic priests, James Gillis, CSP and John LaFarge, SJ, became unlikely collaborators and colleagues in their common effort to bring greater justice to Black Catholics in the United States. Gillis, a strong political and theological conservative and LaFarge, a much more liberal thinker, were two prominent members of the Northeast Clergy Conference for Negro Welfare, a group that arose on the early 1930s and for the next decade produced documents, programs, and initiated various initiatives to better the life of Black Catholics, initially in the Northeast part of the country and then broadening out its reach in a more general way. The ability for two apparent opposites to collaborate in a common effort to assist an oppressed group tells an interesting story of cooperation between apparent political and religious opposites.展开更多
The Jesuits played an important role in the transmission of Western science and technology to China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,though their impact on water technology has received scant attention ...The Jesuits played an important role in the transmission of Western science and technology to China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,though their impact on water technology has received scant attention thus far.As a case in point,Sabatino de Ursis,Society of Jesus熊三拔,in collaboration with the Chinese official Xu Guangqi徐光啟,published in 1612 Hydraulic Methods of the Far West(Taixi shuifa泰西水法),the earliest book in China on Western water-lifting devices,which contained a detailed description of the Archimedean screw pump.While the impact of the Archimedean screw pump in China and Korea remained rather limited,the screw pump was used to drain water from gold mines in the Japanese Sado Island from as early as 1637.This fact became known in the West only in the very late 1800s when hand-colored picture scrolls about the Japanese gold mining process became available.These scrolls show various applications of Archimedean screw,which apparently were made according to the manufacturing instructions in Hydraulic Methods of the Far West.展开更多
In the late Ming period,Xu Guangqi and other Catholic literati were actively involved with military affairs because of the invasion of the Manchu forces and the threat of uprisings.The story of how they imported Europ...In the late Ming period,Xu Guangqi and other Catholic literati were actively involved with military affairs because of the invasion of the Manchu forces and the threat of uprisings.The story of how they imported European cannons and gunners from Macao is now quite famous.However,the introduction of European fortifications,mainly the trace Italienne,in the same period is still relatively unknown.Xu Guangqi and his student Sun Yuanhua exerted considerable efforts in advocating European-style bastions.Xu not only received help from Jesuits,but also support from some Fujianese who were familiar with Intramuros,the Spanish walled city of Manila.In addition to Xu and Sun,Han Lin and Han Yun(also Xu’s students)prepared a Chinese treatise on European fortification architecture based on Italian sources and tried to put the knowledge into practice.Another relevant figure is Ma Weicheng,who allegedly directed the building of 32 angled bastions in three cities around 1640.Although a few recorded writings and practices of constructing European-style fortification appeared in the first half of the seventeenth century,soon afterwards the art of trace Italienne met its end prematurely in China.To a great extent,the swift collapse of the Ming dynasty eliminated the possibility of spreading the new defense technology.Throughout the eighteenth century,the Qing dynasty enjoyed long-term peace,and the warfare at the frontiers brought few threats to the city walls.There was thus little urgency to develop innovative defensive works and European fortification sunk into oblivion until the mid-nineteenth century.展开更多
A profound split is evident during the period 1670-1730 in the way European scholars and commentators attempted to understand and describe classical Chinese thought. For some, Confucianism acknowledged divine creation...A profound split is evident during the period 1670-1730 in the way European scholars and commentators attempted to understand and describe classical Chinese thought. For some, Confucianism acknowledged divine creation and divine governance of the world, immortality of the soul and other elements of Natural Theology. The Radical Enlightenment thinkers, however, and also some Christian scholars denied that Confucianism was based on Natural Theology or pervaded by belief in divine providence, characterizing it rather as monist, naturalist and Spinozist. The disagreement proved fundamental in several respects and proved divisive for the Church, as well as European thought more generally, producing a series of lively disputes that continued over several decades.展开更多
Matteo Ricci introduced into China the Western theory of soul, a term which he translated as linghun 靈魂.Afterwards, two other Italian Jesuits, Giulio Aleni and Francesco Sambiasi, separately completed two Chinese in...Matteo Ricci introduced into China the Western theory of soul, a term which he translated as linghun 靈魂.Afterwards, two other Italian Jesuits, Giulio Aleni and Francesco Sambiasi, separately completed two Chinese interpretations of the De Anima (On the Soul), the former privileging the word linghun, and the later, yanima 亞尼舌馬,a transliteration for anima. Xia Dachang 夏大常(Mathias Hsia) is probably the first Chinese person to write specifically on the topic of the soul. However, he used a different term, lingxing 靈,性(human spiritual nature), and also he titled his work "The Theory of Human Nature"("Xingshuo"性說).Xia's work has received little scholarly attention, and this paper aims at investigating how he adopts the Western theory of the soul, why he still uses the concept of lingxing, and which Chinese editions of De Anima or other works written by the Jesuits had influenced him. We shall also see how Xia Dachang uses traditional Chinese sources and Catholic doctrine to support his viewpoint of human nature and how he criticizes theories of human nature within Chinese philosophy. This will enable us to comprehend how Chinese Christians in the Early Qing dynasty understood the theory of the soul and to reflect on the contemporary relevance of this theory in Chinese culture today.展开更多
This paper examines how the definition and interpretation of the concept gewu zhizhi格物致知(investigating things and extending knowledge),evolved along with Chinese intellectual efforts to construct the framework for...This paper examines how the definition and interpretation of the concept gewu zhizhi格物致知(investigating things and extending knowledge),evolved along with Chinese intellectual efforts to construct the framework for Chinese learning which,in turn,had a profound impact on the development of educational curricula in different historical periods.In Confucian philosophy,“practicality”appears ambivalent,as it can refer to moral cultivation in daily life or knowledge in the material world.Such ambivalence,embodied in the evolution of the concept of gewu zhizhi,can be interpreted as a Chinese search for a well-rounded curriculum in education.Within this framework,this paper traces the origin of the concept in The Great Learning,and investigates how it was developed to refer specifically to natural studies and then to scientific knowledge introduced into China in the late Qing period.This historical reflection on Chinese education points to the shared humanistic values in the Confucian approach to education and in the Renaissance ideal of a liberal education.It calls for a search for a common humanity in rethinking the content and aim of a modern Chinese education.展开更多
This study aims to investigate the role played by Xu Guangqi （1562-1633）, minister of the Ming Dynasty, in the development of European scientific and technical knowledge in China between the 16th and 17th centuries ...This study aims to investigate the role played by Xu Guangqi （1562-1633）, minister of the Ming Dynasty, in the development of European scientific and technical knowledge in China between the 16th and 17th centuries by analyzing a book of Western technology that he wrote, namely, Taixi Shuifa （On Western Hydraulics）. Several Western books related to machine knowledge are searched to trace the source of the illustrations in Taixi Shuifa. We found that Archimedes＇ screw and Ctesibius＇ machine, which are included in Vitruvius＇ De Architectura volumes, also appear in the work of Xu Guangqi.展开更多
This paper analyzes the critique of Neo-Confucianism by the Japanese Jesuit Brother Fabian Fukansai (c. 1565-1621) in the Mydtei Dialogues {Mydtei Mondo 妙貞問答)(1605), as well as Fabian's later critique of Chris...This paper analyzes the critique of Neo-Confucianism by the Japanese Jesuit Brother Fabian Fukansai (c. 1565-1621) in the Mydtei Dialogues {Mydtei Mondo 妙貞問答)(1605), as well as Fabian's later critique of Christianity. It clarifies the author's understanding of Neo-Confiician theory and his apology for Christianity by analyzing his explanation of the Great Ultimate (Tai "kyoku/Taiji 太極)and Principle (ri/li 理),which Fabian sees as nothing but an expression of Buddhist monistic mentalism. It also demonstrates that his explanations of the Great Ultimate and Principle have a crucial flaw: they do not sufficiently explain Zhu Xi's metaphysics, which tried to make the immanent and transcendental characteristics of the Great Ultimate and Principle compatible. This is because Fabian addresses only the elements of “local" religions including Neo-Confucianism with novel keywords that support the framework of Christian Creationism and the Anima Rationalis theory. However, his later work Deus Destroyed (Ha Daius 破提宇子),written after he had rejected Christianity, overturned his former claim by accepting the Neo-Confucian concept of Principle. Fabian's works are a historical example showing the potential limits of a confrontational approach toward other religions.展开更多
Upon his untimely death,Michal Boym(1612–1659)left behind an enormous written legacy;covering a diverse range of interests in fields such as Chinese linguistics,cartography,botany,zoology,philosophy and medicine.This...Upon his untimely death,Michal Boym(1612–1659)left behind an enormous written legacy;covering a diverse range of interests in fields such as Chinese linguistics,cartography,botany,zoology,philosophy and medicine.This article attempts to examine Boym’s De indiciis morborum ex linguae coloribus&affectionibus(The signs of disease on the tongue,colors and affections),a translation of a previously unidentified Chinese text.The text specifically deals with the subject of tongue diagnosis,in relation to contagious diseases that were still raging in the17 th century China.Arriving to China at the end of the Ming Dynasty(1368–1644),Boym was able to personally witness the early development of tongue examination as an independent specialty;he recognized its significance and tried to incorporate it into his ultimately unfinished Chinese medical corpus.Boym’s work eventually facilitated the assimilation of tongue observation in European medicine during the 19 th century.展开更多
This essay explores different seventeenth-century accounts of the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644--Chinese vernacular novels and literati memoirs, Jesuit histories, and Dutch poetry and plays--to investigate a develo...This essay explores different seventeenth-century accounts of the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644--Chinese vernacular novels and literati memoirs, Jesuit histories, and Dutch poetry and plays--to investigate a developing notion of openness in both Europe and China. In Europe, the idea of openness helped to construct an early-modern global order based on the free flow of material goods, religious beliefs, and shared information. In these accounts, China＇s supposed refusal to open itself to the world came to represent Europe＇s Other, an obstacle to the liberal global order. In doing so, however, European accounts drew on Chinese popular sources that similarly embraced openness, albeit openness of a different kind, that is the direct and unobstructed communication between ruler and subject. This is not to say that Chinese late-Ming accounts of the fall of the Ming are the source of European ideals of liberalism, but rather to suggest that, at a crucial early-modern moment of globalization, European authors misapprehended late-Ming ideals of enlightened imperial rule so as to consolidate their own worldview, foreclosing late-Ming ideals in the process.展开更多
On 29 September 1584, the first Catholic catechism was printed in China under the title The True Record of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu Shilu 天主實錄).Written primarily by the Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri (1543-...On 29 September 1584, the first Catholic catechism was printed in China under the title The True Record of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu Shilu 天主實錄).Written primarily by the Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607) with the assistance of at least two other Jesuits and Chinese interpreters, the catechism inaugurated the rich cultural exchange between China and Europe for which the Jesuit China mission would be renown. Despite the pioneering role of this catechism, it has been viewed for the most part by posterity as a pale forerunner of the later catechism by Ruggieri's confrere, Matteo Ricci (1552—1610), The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu Shiyi 天主實義).This article attempts to skirt the anachronistic comparison with Ricci's Tianzhu Shiyi by proposing the Tianzhu Shilu as an autonomous text expressive of a cogent strategy for tailoring Western scholasticism to the contingencies of the Chinese cultural context.展开更多
文摘Viewing traditional Chinese science as one of the tributaries to be merged into the grand ocean of modern/universal science,Joseph Needham placed great importance on the period of the Jesuits in the'Sciences of the Heavens'section in volume 3 of Science and Civilisation in China.He considered that period a turning point when Chinese astronomy-a representative field of Chinese science-changed from its traditional form into universal/modern astronomy.Among the work of other historians of Chinese science,Joseph Needham's work helped foster a growing interest in the astronomical work of the Jesuits in China.After more than 50 years,as many of the details in Needham's original work have been gradually clarified and enhanced,a new picture of the Jesuits'contribution to Chinese astronomy has taken shape.In some important respects,that picture is quite contrary to Needham's overall claim about the role and result of Jesuit works in the development of astronomy in China,which has led to new questions that invite further investigation.
文摘This presentation discusses the requests of modern pedagogy, and a possible bridging between the traditional teaching strategies drawn by the Ratio Studiorum of a unique and rare structure, and today＇s learning process. It will argue the practical application and philosophy of education widely accepted and recognized as a part of curricular activities within the learning environments, though with no recognition of its origin. This paper aims to examine the indisputable contributions of the educational methods of the Jesuits in our time, although, the discipline has developed new fundamental, and new concepts such as self-esteem, self-awareness, and self-determination among others,
文摘The idea of the hypothetical Magellanica Continent(Terra Australis Incognita)was introduced into China by the Jesuit missionaries during the seventeenth century.While not accepted by the Chinese government,it was affirmed and transmitted to the public by a few Chinese scholars,including Feng Yingjing,Cheng Bai'er,Zhang Huang,Xiong Mingyu,Xiong Renlin,You Yi,Zhou Yuqi,Jie Xuan,Wang Honghan,and Ye Zipei.Most of them communicated closely with the Jesuit missionaries,and several even helped the missionaries compose the maps.The concept was updated progressively by Matteo Ricci,Giulio Aleni,Johann Adam Schall von Bell,Francesco Sambiasi,and Ferdinand Verbiest.Chinese scholars copied the missionaries'relevant maps and textual introductions without much modification.However,they paid little attention to advancements in the idea,and many of them circulated outdated knowledge.It was not until the middle-and late-nineteenth century that Chinese scholars reexamined the correctness of this hypothetical continent.
文摘This paper explores the pivotal role of Matteo Ricci(1583-1610)in promoting Sino-Western cultural exchange during his mission in late Ming China,focusing on the period from his arrival in 1583 until his death in 1610.Ricci’s unique approach of cultural accommodation,scientific knowledge dissemination,and religious dialogue positioned him as a bridge between two vastly different civilizations.This study analyzes Ricci’s methods of engagement with Chinese scholars,his introduction of Western science,and the impact of his religious and philosophical exchanges.Ricci’s strategy of adopting Chinese customs and intellectual traditions allowed him to foster trust and dialogue,making him one of the most successful missionaries in China.The paper further examines how Ricci’s translations of scientific works and his attempts to harmonize Christianity with Confucian values significantly influenced Chinese intellectual circles.By introducing advanced European knowledge in astronomy,mathematics,and geography,Ricci not only facilitated scientific exchange but also enhanced the Jesuits’reputation among Chinese scholars.Ricci’s enduring legacy is examined in the context of early global interactions,emphasizing his influence on subsequent Jesuit missions and the broader history of intercultural dialogue between East and West,highlighting the transformative power of empathy,respect,and intellectual curiosity in cross-cultural engagements.
文摘Nitric acid or qiangshui强水(“strong liquid,”from lat.aqua fortis)was introduced to China multiple times by European missionaries during the Ming and Qing dynasties.Xu Guangqi徐光啟(1562-1633)was the first Chinese to record related knowledge from his communication with Johann Schreck(1576-1630).Johann Adam Schall von Bell(1591-1666),Joachim Bouvet(1656-1730),and Matteo Ripa(1682-1746)independently described the substance to the Chinese in their writings,explaining production methods together with different applications such as separating and assaying of gold and silver,etching of iron or copperplates,and manufacturing of thermometers.This paper focuses on newly discovered Chinese materials,mainly from the Investigations of the Earth’s Interior(Kunyu gezhi坤輿格致,1640)by Schall von Bell and his Chinese collaborators,but also from the Record of Essentials of Inception and Completion(Kaicheng jiyao開成紀要)by Xu Guangqi.It analyzes different aspects of knowledge transmission processes including the identification of useful knowledge,the purpose of transmission,the sources of European knowledge,and the applied methods of translation and explanation.From these analyses we can better understand the reasons of their failure or success.
文摘This article explores Adam Schall von Bell’s Investigations of the Earth’s Interior(Kunyu gezhi坤輿格致,1639-1640),a significant Jesuit work aimed at reforming the Chinese mining and smelting industry by introducing relevant European technologies during the late Ming period.After being lost for centuries,the recent rediscovery of a partial manuscript housed in the Nanjing Library has reinvigorated scholarly interest in this treatise.The authors present findings on the manuscript’s origins,dating,and its reliance on Georgius Agricola’s De re metallica alongside other Renaissance works,such as those by Lazarus Ercker or Vannoccio Biringuccio.They challenge claims that the Investigations of the Earth’s Interior introduced the Western concept of“minerals”(kuangwu礦物)to China,arguing that the term retained its traditional meaning of“ores and materials.”Additionally,the article presents new historical documents revealing attempts to implement the treatise’s methods and the bureaucratic challenges that prevented its widespread adoption.These topics shed light on the Investigations of the Earth’s Interior’s role in early global knowledge transmission and its potential impact on China’s mining and metallurgical practices during the Ming-Qing transition.
基金This research is part of“Translating Western Science,Technology and Medicine to Late Ming China:Convergences and Divergences in the Light of the Kunyu gezhi坤輿格致(Investigations of the Earth’s Interior1640)and the Taixi shuifa泰西水法(Hydromethods of the Great West1612),”a project supported by the German Research Foundation(DFG)from 2018 to 2021.
文摘In 2015, a previously unknown manuscript was discovered in the Nanjing Library. It contained a Chinese mining and metallurgy handbook, and was identified as a copy of the Kunyu gezhi 坤輿格致, known as the lost Chinese translation of Georgius Agricola’s(1494–1555) De re metallica(1556) by Jesuit Adam Schall von Bell(1592–1666). A closer look at the text, however, reveals that, besides parts of Agricola’s book, content by at least four other European authors was included: Vannoccio Biringuccio(1480–1539), Modestinus Fachs(?–before 1595), Lazarus Ercker(1528/30–1594), and José de Acosta(1539/40–1599/1600). This study demonstrates how their books became available in China, why they were selected as sources for the Kunyu gezhi, and how they were eventually used and incorporated. From this, it becomes apparent that Schall and his collaborators spared no effort to conduct this ambitious knowledge transfer project, and to present European technology at its best to the emperor.
文摘This research is derived from my doctoral thesis undertaken at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, which provided the first in-depth comparison of printed representations of Catholic and Protestant martyrdom in Tudor England since the work of McGrath and Dickens during the 1960s. In this article, a martyr is defined as one who bore witness to persecution during the Tudor Reformation （c. 1530-1600）, and who ultimately died for his or her beliefs rather than abjure. The main themes discussed were issues of continuity and change： To what extent did Protestant depictions of martyrs draw upon pre-Reformation ideas？ Were they a radical break from the past; or did they represent gradual evolution and transition in which some older beliefs were perpetuated, some were reinterpreted allegorically, and others were abandoned and replaced with new representations？ Novel contributions to the historiography include the representation of non-martyrs （individuals who failed to gain full recognition in Catholic or Protestant martyrologies）, Puritan efforts to supplant pre-Reformation rituals derived from what Duffy termed the cult of saints with abstract Old Testament inspired sermons, and the depiction of persecutors＇ untimely deaths as evidence of divine providence and the illegitimacy of rival churches. Although firmly grounded in history, my methodology also incorporated elements from other disciplines, especially gender studies, death studies, religion, philosophy, and some aspects of art history. In particular, I have examined the language of inversion, where exceptionally courageous female martyrs were portrayed with the masculine virtues of courage, analytical rationality or self-control, and allegedly negative feminine traits such as cowardice, deceit, treachery, or sexual misconduct were used to shame and discredit clergymen from rival religious groups or sects. This article will focus upon Catholic and Protestant efforts to identify 16th century martyrs with the saints of the early church, either literally or allegorically, with the aim of gaining reassurance from familiar historical patterns, and challenging the legitimacy of rival churches.
文摘For a period of some 10 years, two Roman Catholic priests, James Gillis, CSP and John LaFarge, SJ, became unlikely collaborators and colleagues in their common effort to bring greater justice to Black Catholics in the United States. Gillis, a strong political and theological conservative and LaFarge, a much more liberal thinker, were two prominent members of the Northeast Clergy Conference for Negro Welfare, a group that arose on the early 1930s and for the next decade produced documents, programs, and initiated various initiatives to better the life of Black Catholics, initially in the Northeast part of the country and then broadening out its reach in a more general way. The ability for two apparent opposites to collaborate in a common effort to assist an oppressed group tells an interesting story of cooperation between apparent political and religious opposites.
文摘The Jesuits played an important role in the transmission of Western science and technology to China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,though their impact on water technology has received scant attention thus far.As a case in point,Sabatino de Ursis,Society of Jesus熊三拔,in collaboration with the Chinese official Xu Guangqi徐光啟,published in 1612 Hydraulic Methods of the Far West(Taixi shuifa泰西水法),the earliest book in China on Western water-lifting devices,which contained a detailed description of the Archimedean screw pump.While the impact of the Archimedean screw pump in China and Korea remained rather limited,the screw pump was used to drain water from gold mines in the Japanese Sado Island from as early as 1637.This fact became known in the West only in the very late 1800s when hand-colored picture scrolls about the Japanese gold mining process became available.These scrolls show various applications of Archimedean screw,which apparently were made according to the manufacturing instructions in Hydraulic Methods of the Far West.
文摘In the late Ming period,Xu Guangqi and other Catholic literati were actively involved with military affairs because of the invasion of the Manchu forces and the threat of uprisings.The story of how they imported European cannons and gunners from Macao is now quite famous.However,the introduction of European fortifications,mainly the trace Italienne,in the same period is still relatively unknown.Xu Guangqi and his student Sun Yuanhua exerted considerable efforts in advocating European-style bastions.Xu not only received help from Jesuits,but also support from some Fujianese who were familiar with Intramuros,the Spanish walled city of Manila.In addition to Xu and Sun,Han Lin and Han Yun(also Xu’s students)prepared a Chinese treatise on European fortification architecture based on Italian sources and tried to put the knowledge into practice.Another relevant figure is Ma Weicheng,who allegedly directed the building of 32 angled bastions in three cities around 1640.Although a few recorded writings and practices of constructing European-style fortification appeared in the first half of the seventeenth century,soon afterwards the art of trace Italienne met its end prematurely in China.To a great extent,the swift collapse of the Ming dynasty eliminated the possibility of spreading the new defense technology.Throughout the eighteenth century,the Qing dynasty enjoyed long-term peace,and the warfare at the frontiers brought few threats to the city walls.There was thus little urgency to develop innovative defensive works and European fortification sunk into oblivion until the mid-nineteenth century.
文摘A profound split is evident during the period 1670-1730 in the way European scholars and commentators attempted to understand and describe classical Chinese thought. For some, Confucianism acknowledged divine creation and divine governance of the world, immortality of the soul and other elements of Natural Theology. The Radical Enlightenment thinkers, however, and also some Christian scholars denied that Confucianism was based on Natural Theology or pervaded by belief in divine providence, characterizing it rather as monist, naturalist and Spinozist. The disagreement proved fundamental in several respects and proved divisive for the Church, as well as European thought more generally, producing a series of lively disputes that continued over several decades.
文摘Matteo Ricci introduced into China the Western theory of soul, a term which he translated as linghun 靈魂.Afterwards, two other Italian Jesuits, Giulio Aleni and Francesco Sambiasi, separately completed two Chinese interpretations of the De Anima (On the Soul), the former privileging the word linghun, and the later, yanima 亞尼舌馬,a transliteration for anima. Xia Dachang 夏大常(Mathias Hsia) is probably the first Chinese person to write specifically on the topic of the soul. However, he used a different term, lingxing 靈,性(human spiritual nature), and also he titled his work "The Theory of Human Nature"("Xingshuo"性說).Xia's work has received little scholarly attention, and this paper aims at investigating how he adopts the Western theory of the soul, why he still uses the concept of lingxing, and which Chinese editions of De Anima or other works written by the Jesuits had influenced him. We shall also see how Xia Dachang uses traditional Chinese sources and Catholic doctrine to support his viewpoint of human nature and how he criticizes theories of human nature within Chinese philosophy. This will enable us to comprehend how Chinese Christians in the Early Qing dynasty understood the theory of the soul and to reflect on the contemporary relevance of this theory in Chinese culture today.
文摘This paper examines how the definition and interpretation of the concept gewu zhizhi格物致知(investigating things and extending knowledge),evolved along with Chinese intellectual efforts to construct the framework for Chinese learning which,in turn,had a profound impact on the development of educational curricula in different historical periods.In Confucian philosophy,“practicality”appears ambivalent,as it can refer to moral cultivation in daily life or knowledge in the material world.Such ambivalence,embodied in the evolution of the concept of gewu zhizhi,can be interpreted as a Chinese search for a well-rounded curriculum in education.Within this framework,this paper traces the origin of the concept in The Great Learning,and investigates how it was developed to refer specifically to natural studies and then to scientific knowledge introduced into China in the late Qing period.This historical reflection on Chinese education points to the shared humanistic values in the Confucian approach to education and in the Renaissance ideal of a liberal education.It calls for a search for a common humanity in rethinking the content and aim of a modern Chinese education.
文摘This study aims to investigate the role played by Xu Guangqi （1562-1633）, minister of the Ming Dynasty, in the development of European scientific and technical knowledge in China between the 16th and 17th centuries by analyzing a book of Western technology that he wrote, namely, Taixi Shuifa （On Western Hydraulics）. Several Western books related to machine knowledge are searched to trace the source of the illustrations in Taixi Shuifa. We found that Archimedes＇ screw and Ctesibius＇ machine, which are included in Vitruvius＇ De Architectura volumes, also appear in the work of Xu Guangqi.
文摘This paper analyzes the critique of Neo-Confucianism by the Japanese Jesuit Brother Fabian Fukansai (c. 1565-1621) in the Mydtei Dialogues {Mydtei Mondo 妙貞問答)(1605), as well as Fabian's later critique of Christianity. It clarifies the author's understanding of Neo-Confiician theory and his apology for Christianity by analyzing his explanation of the Great Ultimate (Tai "kyoku/Taiji 太極)and Principle (ri/li 理),which Fabian sees as nothing but an expression of Buddhist monistic mentalism. It also demonstrates that his explanations of the Great Ultimate and Principle have a crucial flaw: they do not sufficiently explain Zhu Xi's metaphysics, which tried to make the immanent and transcendental characteristics of the Great Ultimate and Principle compatible. This is because Fabian addresses only the elements of “local" religions including Neo-Confucianism with novel keywords that support the framework of Christian Creationism and the Anima Rationalis theory. However, his later work Deus Destroyed (Ha Daius 破提宇子),written after he had rejected Christianity, overturned his former claim by accepting the Neo-Confucian concept of Principle. Fabian's works are a historical example showing the potential limits of a confrontational approach toward other religions.
基金Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation(No.81603516)Basic Research Fund of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences(No.YZ-1705)。
文摘Upon his untimely death,Michal Boym(1612–1659)left behind an enormous written legacy;covering a diverse range of interests in fields such as Chinese linguistics,cartography,botany,zoology,philosophy and medicine.This article attempts to examine Boym’s De indiciis morborum ex linguae coloribus&affectionibus(The signs of disease on the tongue,colors and affections),a translation of a previously unidentified Chinese text.The text specifically deals with the subject of tongue diagnosis,in relation to contagious diseases that were still raging in the17 th century China.Arriving to China at the end of the Ming Dynasty(1368–1644),Boym was able to personally witness the early development of tongue examination as an independent specialty;he recognized its significance and tried to incorporate it into his ultimately unfinished Chinese medical corpus.Boym’s work eventually facilitated the assimilation of tongue observation in European medicine during the 19 th century.
文摘This essay explores different seventeenth-century accounts of the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644--Chinese vernacular novels and literati memoirs, Jesuit histories, and Dutch poetry and plays--to investigate a developing notion of openness in both Europe and China. In Europe, the idea of openness helped to construct an early-modern global order based on the free flow of material goods, religious beliefs, and shared information. In these accounts, China＇s supposed refusal to open itself to the world came to represent Europe＇s Other, an obstacle to the liberal global order. In doing so, however, European accounts drew on Chinese popular sources that similarly embraced openness, albeit openness of a different kind, that is the direct and unobstructed communication between ruler and subject. This is not to say that Chinese late-Ming accounts of the fall of the Ming are the source of European ideals of liberalism, but rather to suggest that, at a crucial early-modern moment of globalization, European authors misapprehended late-Ming ideals of enlightened imperial rule so as to consolidate their own worldview, foreclosing late-Ming ideals in the process.
文摘On 29 September 1584, the first Catholic catechism was printed in China under the title The True Record of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu Shilu 天主實錄).Written primarily by the Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607) with the assistance of at least two other Jesuits and Chinese interpreters, the catechism inaugurated the rich cultural exchange between China and Europe for which the Jesuit China mission would be renown. Despite the pioneering role of this catechism, it has been viewed for the most part by posterity as a pale forerunner of the later catechism by Ruggieri's confrere, Matteo Ricci (1552—1610), The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu Shiyi 天主實義).This article attempts to skirt the anachronistic comparison with Ricci's Tianzhu Shiyi by proposing the Tianzhu Shilu as an autonomous text expressive of a cogent strategy for tailoring Western scholasticism to the contingencies of the Chinese cultural context.
