The negative effect of soil erosion and soil compaction is well documented for the purpose of optimum rangeland functioning, while the impact of rangeland degradation on effective soil depth is seldom quantified. The ...The negative effect of soil erosion and soil compaction is well documented for the purpose of optimum rangeland functioning, while the impact of rangeland degradation on effective soil depth is seldom quantified. The aim of this study was to quantify the response of vegetation cover and soil properties, particularly effective soil depth and soil texture to rangeland degradation. Forty-one farms were sampled in the arid and semi-arid climate of South Africa. Within these farms, data was collected over a vegetation degradation gradient. Results showed a significant decline in relative basal cover (94% ± 15% to 39% ± 17%) and soil depth (90% ± 14% to 73% ± 24%) as rangeland degraded. Soil texture changes over the degradation gradients vary for different homogeneous vegetation types. Indications regarding the loss of a functioning rangeland ecosystem were also demonstrated, using objective long-term relations between rangeland conditions and grazing capacity. The study highlights the importance of sustainable rangeland management practices to reduce the loss in effective soil depth and to ensure the sustainable utilization of the rangeland ecosystem. These results can probably extrapolate to other arid and semi-arid rangelands worldwide.展开更多
This study comprehensively examines the multifaceted impact of climate change on Morocco’s ecological sustainability and economic development,focusing on four critical environmental stressors:water stress,deforestati...This study comprehensively examines the multifaceted impact of climate change on Morocco’s ecological sustainability and economic development,focusing on four critical environmental stressors:water stress,deforestation,greenhouse gas emissions,and rising temperatures.These interrelated factors contribute significantly to the degradation of natural ecosystems,the decline in biodiversity,reductions in carbon sequestration,and the disruption of ecological balance.Water scarcity—exacerbated by declining precipitation,excessive groundwater extraction,and rising evapotranspiration—threatens the functionality of wetlands,agricultural productivity,and the livelihoods of rural populations.Deforestation accelerates soil erosion,alters hydrological cycles,and leads to the loss of critical habitats,while greenhouse gas emissions and temperature rise intensify climate variability and increase the frequency of extreme events such as droughts and heatwaves.Using longitudinal data from the World Bank(1990-2022)and advanced econometric modeling through EViews 12 software,this study reveals that water stress and rising temperatures have a statistically significant and negative impact on GDP,indicating that climate pressures undermine Morocco’s economic performance,particularly in climate-sensitive sectors.Conversely,the findings show that deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions are positively correlated with short-term economic growth,reflecting a development pattern heavily reliant on natural resource exploitation and carbon-intensive activities,which may offer temporary gains but pose serious long-term risks to sustainability.These results underscore the urgent need for a paradigm shift toward ecosystem-based adaptation and mitigation strategies,including afforestation,wetland restoration,integrated land and water resource management,and the incorporation of climate resilience into national development frameworks.展开更多
Sand-fflled splash cups were used to study the erosive power of rainfall and throughfall in the humid subtropics of Southeast China. The splash cup measurements yielded precise and reproducible results under both open...Sand-fflled splash cups were used to study the erosive power of rainfall and throughfall in the humid subtropics of Southeast China. The splash cup measurements yielded precise and reproducible results under both open field conditions and forest vegetation. The splash cups were exposed to specific forest stands of different ages and to selected species （Schima superba, Castanopsis eyrei, Daphniphyllum oldhamii, Lithocarpus glaber） in the Gutianshan （古田山） National Nature Reserve （GNNR）. The results of the measurements under forest vegetation show that the erosive power of throughfall drops to be 2.59 times higher compared to the open field. This accentuates the importance of shrub, herb and litter layers in forest ecosystems to protect the soil against erosion. Coalescing drops from leaves and branches （drips） are responsible for this notable gain in erosive power. Moreover, differences in sandloss between the investigated tree species （deciduous, evergreen） revealed that the erosion potential and the spatial heterogeneity of throughfall are species-specific. This highlights the importance of selecting specific species for afforestation projects considering the prevention of soil erosion.展开更多
The 21st century has seen an acceleration of global change,including climate change,elevated carbon dioxide,nitrogen deposition,and land-use intensification,which poses a significant threat to ecosystem functioning.Ne...The 21st century has seen an acceleration of global change,including climate change,elevated carbon dioxide,nitrogen deposition,and land-use intensification,which poses a significant threat to ecosystem functioning.Nev-ertheless,studies on the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning(BEF)have consistently demonstrated that biodiversity enhances ecosystem functioning and its stability,even in variable environmental conditions.These findings potentially indicate the critical role of biodiversity in promoting sustainable provi-sioning of ecosystem functioning under global change.Our paper provides a comprehensive review of current BEF research and the response of BEF to multiple global change factors.We demonstrate that(1)assessing the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning requires consideration of multiple dimensions of diversity,such as diversity across multiple trophic levels(plants,animals,and microbes),multiple facets(taxonomy,functional traits,and phylogeny),and multiple spatial scales(local,regional,and landscape scales).(2)The interaction of multiple global change factors may lead to a greater reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning than a single global change factor.(3)Multidimensional biodiversity regulates the response of ecosystem functioning to global change factors,indicating that high levels of multidimensional biodiversity can mitigate the negative impacts of global change on ecosystem functioning.Overall,we emphasize that recognizing the importance of multidimensional biodiversity is critical for sustaining ecosystem functioning.Therefore,prioritizing conserva-tion efforts to maintain and enhance all dimensions of biodiversity is essential to address the challenges of future global change.展开更多
In order to better explore the function of urban forest in human habitation and settlement environment,the ecosystem functions were evaluated in terms of air purification,water conservation,soil conservation,maintenan...In order to better explore the function of urban forest in human habitation and settlement environment,the ecosystem functions were evaluated in terms of air purification,water conservation,soil conservation,maintenance of biodiversity in Meizhou by the methods of market price,shadow prices approach and opportunity cost,and the problems of the value assessment at home and abroad in urban forest ecosystem services function were simply discussed.展开更多
The conversion of saline-alkali soils into paddy fields for long-term rice cultivation involves multiple disturbances,and as a result,soil microbial communities are altered to adapt to changing environmental condition...The conversion of saline-alkali soils into paddy fields for long-term rice cultivation involves multiple disturbances,and as a result,soil microbial communities are altered to adapt to changing environmental conditions.However,a comprehensive understanding of the succession of soil bacterial communities that occurs during this process is still lacking.In the present study,we utilized data obtained from paddy fields of different rice cultivation years(0-23 years)to investigate the compositional and functional succession of soil bacterial communities.We focused on core bacterial taxa that were specifically enriched at different successional stages.Generalized joint attribute modeling(GJAM)was used to identify core bacterial taxa.Results indicated that the bare saline-alkali soil(0 year,prior to any rice cultivation)shared few core amplicon sequence variants(ASVs)with paddy fields.In the bare saline-alkali soil,Longimicrobiaceae from the phylum Gemmatimonadetes was dominant,while the dominance was subsequently replaced by Burkholderiaceae and Pedosphaeraceae--phyla affiliated with Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia--after 5 and 23 years of rice cultivation,respectively.The relative abundances of nitrogen metabolism functions in the core bacterial communities of the bare saline-alkali soil were higher than those at other successional stages,while sulfur metabolism functions exhibited the opposite trend.These indicated that the role of the core bacterial taxa in mediating nutrient cycling also evolved and adapted to changing soil conditions as rice cultivation was established.Redundancy analysis(RDA)indicated that the composition of the core bacterial community in paddy fields with rice cultivation for 0,2 and 4,6,8,10,and 12,and 20 and 23 years were driven by soil nitrate nitrogen content,pH,available phosphorus content,and the ratio of total carbon to total nitrogen,respectively.In summary,the present study provides insights into the succession of soil bacterial communities and core bacterial taxa that occurs during long-term rice cultivation.展开更多
Land use change is a fundamental factor affecting ecosystem’s structures and functions.However,few studies have explored the ecological disturbance caused by land use change from a combined structural and functional ...Land use change is a fundamental factor affecting ecosystem’s structures and functions.However,few studies have explored the ecological disturbance caused by land use change from a combined structural and functional perspective.In this study,the ecological structural disturbance index(SDI)and functional disturbance index(FDI)were introduced to quantitatively evaluate ecological disturbance caused by land use change in a typical karst area—Huangping County,Guizhou Province,China during 2009–2019.Results show that although the area of ecological land increased during past 10 yr,there had been a fragmentation trend of ecological land.Agricultural occupation was more severe than construction encroachment on ecological land.The grids with negative structural disturbance were consistent with areas of obvious dynamic loss and gain of ecological land.Ecological fragmentation had a greater impact than habitat gain in grids with negative structural disturbance.The ecosystem service functions of supply,adjustment,support,and culture were obviously affected by land use change,and the total FDI reflects the trade-off among them.Negative FDI values were easily observed in the rocky desertification area or water and soil loss area.The combination analysis of the SDI and FDI indicated the characteristic of codirectional ecologically structural and functional disturbance in the majority of grids.The findings improve our understanding of multiple relationships among ecological disturbances and provide valuable information for guiding land use activities.展开更多
The Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province of China covers Yulin, Yan＇an, and Tongchuan cities mainly. The kind of physiognomy is complicated and various, including the transitional region of the sand and wind, t...The Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province of China covers Yulin, Yan＇an, and Tongchuan cities mainly. The kind of physiognomy is complicated and various, including the transitional region of the sand and wind, the hilly-gully fragile region, the pimple mound region from North to South. Large-scale land reclamation projects that are severely affecting these ecosystems have been implemented. In this paper, we reported an investigation to the changes in land use and ecosystem services on the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province from 1978 to 2000. We used three LANDSAT TM and/or ETM data sets to estimate the changes in the size of five land-cover/land-use categories, and we also used previously published value coefficients to estimate the changes in the value of ecosystem services delivered by each land category. Finally, we ranked the contribution of various ecosystem functions to the overall value of the ecosystem services, we have estimated that the annual value of the ecosystem services is 56.95 billon RMB yuan in the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province in 2000. In the region, from 1978 to 2000, the economic value of the fixing carbon was higher, the economic value of water conservation was the lowest, but the economic value of the NPP, fixing carbon, and supplying oxygen accounted for above ninety percent of the total value, obviously the vegetation created the biggest ecosystem service value. We can conclude that future land-use policy formulation should give precedence to the conservation of these ecosystems over uncontrolled reclamation, and that further land reclamation should be based on rigorous environmental impact analyses.展开更多
Using energy analysis,the quantifying evaluation and study method on production, living and ecology functions and their sustainability of rural settlement ecosystem in mountain area is established with these energy in...Using energy analysis,the quantifying evaluation and study method on production, living and ecology functions and their sustainability of rural settlement ecosystem in mountain area is established with these energy index such as export of labor and products, export of water resource, internal energy reserve, energy consumption for human living, net energy of ecosystem function and net internal reserve. Taking rural settlement Raosi Village in Hengduan Mountains as a case study, and on the basis of the synthetic research into the ecological process of the complex ecosystem, the study shows that energy costs of production, human living and ecology functions are separately taking 1.36%, 13.59% and 85. 05% of the gross ecosystem functions, and the exertions of production and human living functions are close to a high-point state on the present using level of energy in the settlement. The study also shows that the most important function of a rural settlement in mountain area is its ecological rather productive function.展开更多
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP),also known as the Third Pole of the Earth,is a vital ecological security barrier for China.It is a tremendously sensitive region affected by the impacts of global climate change.The esca...The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP),also known as the Third Pole of the Earth,is a vital ecological security barrier for China.It is a tremendously sensitive region affected by the impacts of global climate change.The escalating intensity of climate change has presented profound challenges to its ecosystem functions and stability.This study first analyzes the spatiotemporal variations of the QTP ecosystem patterns and the key functions of the Plateau including water conservation,soil conservation,and windbreak and sand fixation from 2000 to 2020.It clarifies the regional differences in ecosystem functions and their importance,further evaluates the stability of ecosystem functions,and lays a scientific foundation for an ecological civilization on the Plateau by implementing conservation and restoration projects.The main results show that:(1)From 2000 to 2020,the wetland area in the QTP increased,while the grassland area significantly decreased.There were improvements in water conservation and windbreak and sand fixation capacities,with annual rates of change being 3.57m~3·ha^(-1)·a^(-1)and 0.23 t·ha^(-1)·a^(-1),respectively.However,the overall soil conservation trend declined during the same period,with an annual change rate of-0.16 t·ha^(-1)·a^(-1).(2)The core areas of water conservation,soil conservation,and windbreak and sand fixation on the QTP accounted for 12.7%,13.9%,and 14.2%of the total area,respectively.The core water conservation areas are mainly the southeastern QTP,Sanjiangyuan,and Naqu,while the core windbreak and sand fixation areas were concentrated in the central and western parts of the Plateau.The core soil conservation areas surrounded the entire interior of the Plateau.(3)From 2000 to 2020,the water conservation,soil conservation,and windbreak sand-fixation function on the QTP had higher stability in the southeastern and central parts,while stability was lower in the western region.Considering the stability assessment and ecological protection and restoration practices,the QTP can be divided into three major categories and 16 ecological functional zones.Differentiated ecological protection and restoration efforts can be implemented based on the different core ecosystem functions and zoning.展开更多
In the past,evaluations of ecosystem functions were mostly based on Costanza's model,whereas the spatial,quality and temporal characteristics of regional ecosystems were not considered in the model.Focusing on the...In the past,evaluations of ecosystem functions were mostly based on Costanza's model,whereas the spatial,quality and temporal characteristics of regional ecosystems were not considered in the model.Focusing on these issues,coefficients of regional difference,spatial heterogeneity and willingness-to-pay(WTP)were established to modify Costanza's model,and a new comprehensive valuation model of ecosystem functions is proposed.The analytical results indicate that the comprehensive model could evaluate regional ecosystem functions in China accurately and provide more helpful information for decision-making.The empirical study on Zhangbei County in Hebei Province shows that the intensive human activities could limit the provision of ecosystem functions while the planned ecological programs might promote the restoration of ecosystem functions.展开更多
Ecosystem services can be enhanced through ecological restoration,industrial structure adjustment,land-use optimization,and agricultural and forestry ecosystem transformation.The ecosystem services in hilly and mounta...Ecosystem services can be enhanced through ecological restoration,industrial structure adjustment,land-use optimization,and agricultural and forestry ecosystem transformation.The ecosystem services in hilly and mountainous areas of southern China are crucially needed to be enhanced since these regions are important ecological functional zones in China.However,due to its large area,it is not possible to simultaneously upgrade the ecosystem services for all areas,and therefore,priority areas need to be selected to individually upgrade the ecosystem service function.In this study,via an approach of combining remote sensing,geographic information system,and spatial statistics,we identify the priority areas that need to be upgraded based on the analysis of ecological sensitivity,importance of ecosystem service function,and decreased degree in ecosystem services.For five counties in hilly and mountainous areas of southern China,only less than 2% of the total area was identified as the first priority area;its land-use compositions were analyzed and recommendations on how to enhance ecosystem service were suggested.This approach overcomes the conflict and contradiction issues associated with identifying priority areas in previous studies and solves the problems of high cost or difficult implementation of priority areas.展开更多
Ecosystem services have become one of the core elements of ecosystem management and evaluation. As a key area of ecosystem services and for maintaining national ecological security, ecosystem changes and implementatio...Ecosystem services have become one of the core elements of ecosystem management and evaluation. As a key area of ecosystem services and for maintaining national ecological security, ecosystem changes and implementation effect evaluation are important in national key ecological function zones, for promoting the main function zone strategy and for improving the construction of an ecological civilization. This article studies the ecological zone of a tropical rainforest region in the central mountain area of Hainan Island, China. Multi-source satellite data and ground observation statistics are analyzed with geo-statistics method and ecological assessment model. The core analysis of this paper includes ecosystem patterns, quality and services. By means of spatial and temporal scale expansion and multidimensional space-time correlation analysis, the trends and stability characteristics of ecosystem changes are analyzed, and implementation effect evaluation is discussed. The analysis shows a variety of results. The proportion of forest area inside the ecological zone was significantly higher than the average level in Hainan Island. During 1990–2013, settlement gradually increased inside the ecological zone. After implementation of the zone in 2010, human activity intensity increased, with the main land use being urban construction and land reclamation. Water conservation in the ecological function zone was higher than that outside the zone. In general, it increased slightly, but had obvious fluctuations. Soil conservation inside the zone was also better than that outside. However, it demonstrated dramatic fluctuations and relatively poor stability during 1990–2013. The human disturbance index inside the zone was significantly lower than that outside, and had a lower biodiversity threat level. Especially in 2010–2013, the increased range of the human disturbance index inside the zone was significantly less than that outside.展开更多
Based on the measurement parameters and index in the Specifications for Assessment of Forest Ecosystem Services in China(LY/T 1721-2008),the value of ecological service functions of ecological public welfare forest in...Based on the measurement parameters and index in the Specifications for Assessment of Forest Ecosystem Services in China(LY/T 1721-2008),the value of ecological service functions of ecological public welfare forest in Wenchang City was evaluated and analyzed.The results show that the total value of ecosystem service function of ecological public welfare forests in Wenchang City is about 4.020 billion yuan,of which storage capacity,water purification,soil fixation,fertilizer(N,P and K fertilizer) conservation,carbon sequestration,oxygen release,forest nutrient accumulation,providing anion,absorbing SO_2,absorbing fluoride,absorbing NxO,absorbing soil heavy metals,dust retention,noise reduction,sterilization,forest protection,forest biodiversity protection,and forest recreation(ecological tourism) are about 1.510 billion,582.256 million,3.769 million,268.220 million,116.360 million,2.747 million,22.682 million,42.817 million,1.722 million,74,600,131,900,187.918 million,77.409 million,28.721 million,43.090 million,180.696 million,571.036 million,and 108.677 million yuan展开更多
1 Introduction Fresh or saline,lakes constantly exchange with other water bodies on the Earth.Together,they form a crucial part of the water cycle–one of the most important ecosystem functions supporting humans and o...1 Introduction Fresh or saline,lakes constantly exchange with other water bodies on the Earth.Together,they form a crucial part of the water cycle–one of the most important ecosystem functions supporting humans and other biological communities.Lakes have provided invaluable and irreplaceable ecosystem services(benefits)for the展开更多
In this paper, the effects of land cover changes on the climate of the La Plata Basin in southern South America are investigated using the Weather and Research Forecasting （WRF） Model configured on a 30/10- km two-w...In this paper, the effects of land cover changes on the climate of the La Plata Basin in southern South America are investigated using the Weather and Research Forecasting （WRF） Model configured on a 30/10- km two-way interactive nested grid. To assess the regional climate changes resulting from land surface changes, the standard land cover types are replaced by time-varying Ecosystem Functional Types （EFTs）, which is a newly devised land-cover classification that characterizes the spatial and interannual variability of surface vegetation dynamics. These variations indicate that natural and anthropogenic activities have caused changes in the surface physical parameters of the basin, such as albedo and roughness length, that contributed to regional climate changes. EFTs are obtained from functional attributes of vegetation computed from properties of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index （NDVI） to represent patches of the land surface with homogeneous energy and gas exchanges with the atmosphere. Four simulations are conducted, each experimental period ranging from September to November in two contrasting years, 1988 and 1998. The influence of an identical EFT change on the surface heat fluxes, 2-m temperature and humidity, 10-m winds, convective instabilities and large-scale moisture fluxes and precipitation are explored for 1988 （a dry year） and 1998 （a wet year）. Results show that the surface and atmospheric climate has a larger response to the same EFT changes in a dry year for 2-m temperature and 10-m wind; the response is larger in a wet year for 2-m water vapor mixing ratio, convective available potential energy, vertically integrated moisture fluxes and surface precipitation. For EFTs with high productivity and a weak seasonal cycle, the near- surface temperature during the spring of 1988 and 1998 increased by as much as I^C in the central and western portions of La Plata Basin. Additionally, for higher productivity EFTs, precipitation differences were generally positive in both dry and wet years, although the patterns are not uniform and exhibit certain patchiness with drier conditions.展开更多
In this paper, we introduce a new concept of land-surface state representation for southern South America, which is based on ＂functional＂ attributes of vegetation, and implement a new land-cover （Ecosystem Function...In this paper, we introduce a new concept of land-surface state representation for southern South America, which is based on ＂functional＂ attributes of vegetation, and implement a new land-cover （Ecosystem Functional Type, hereafter EFT） dataset in the Weather and Research Forecasting （WRF） model. We found that the EFT data enabled us to deal with functional attributes of vegetation and time-variant features more easily than the default land-cover data in the WRF. In order to explore the usefulness of the EFT data in simulations of surface and atmospheric variables, numerical simulations of the WRF model, using both the US Geological Survey （USGS） and the EFT data, were conducted over the La Plata Basin in South America for the austral spring of 1998 and compared with observations. Results showed that the model simulations were sensitive to the lower boundary conditions and that the use of the EFT data improved the climate simulation of 2-m temperature and precipitation, implying the need for this type of information to be included in numerical climate models.展开更多
It is widely accepted that there is an economic progress beyond the Gross Domestic Product （GDP）, while global GDP has increased more than three-fold since 1950, whereas ecosystems have been largely occupied and dep...It is widely accepted that there is an economic progress beyond the Gross Domestic Product （GDP）, while global GDP has increased more than three-fold since 1950, whereas ecosystems have been largely occupied and depleted. Since the 1990s, emphasis has focused on function and valuation of ecosystem services, which is rarely treated as a market issue. This paper reviews recent developments on measures to evaluate and assess ecosystem services, while elucidating the function of ecosystem services. On the one hand, functions of ecosystem services are subdivided into several items such as gas reg- ulation, water regulation, soil and nutrient recycling. Also, there exist intellectually guided functions of ecosystem services, such as culture and recreation. On the other hand, ecosystems can be viewed as a supplier in the trade between human beings and natural resources such that all resources can be labeled and quantified.展开更多
[Objective] The aim was to better reveal the type of ecosystem service function of wetlands in Chao Lake and provide references for protection and man- agement, restoration and rebuilding of local wetland ecosystem. [...[Objective] The aim was to better reveal the type of ecosystem service function of wetlands in Chao Lake and provide references for protection and man- agement, restoration and rebuilding of local wetland ecosystem. [Method] The val- ues of ecosystem function was estimated by market value method, opportunity cost approach, replacement cost method, shadow engineering approach, travel cost method, hedonic pricing method and contingent value method. [Result] With wetland ecosystem service function value totals 4.968 billion yuan, the value of eco-environ- ment regulation and maintenance was the highest, followed by the value of cultural and social function. The value of material production was the least. The values of sub-functions can be concluded by comparison of service function va}ue and pro- portions, as follows： flood mitigation 〉water purification 〉water conservation 〉 tourism＆leisure〉material production〉scientific research and education〉water supply〉 biodiversity maintenance〉regulation on atmosphere constituents. [Conclusion] The re- search performed quantitative evaluations on ecosystem service function values of wetlands in Chao Lake and is of significance for specific development and protec- tion of local wetlands.展开更多
Primary forests are spatially diverse terrestrial ecosystems with unique characteristics,being naturally regenerative and heterogeneous,which supports the stability of their carbon storage through the accumulation of ...Primary forests are spatially diverse terrestrial ecosystems with unique characteristics,being naturally regenerative and heterogeneous,which supports the stability of their carbon storage through the accumulation of live and dead biomass.Yet,little is known about the interactions between biomass stocks,tree genus diversity and structure across a temperate montane primary forest.Here,we investigated the relationship between tree structure(variability in basal area and tree size),genus-level diversity(abundance,tree diversity)and biomass stocks in temperate primary mountain forests across Central and Eastern Europe.We used inventory data from726 permanent sample plots from mixed beech and spruce across the Carpathian Mountains.We used nonlinear regression to analyse the spatial variability in forest biomass,structure,and genus-level diversity and how they interact with plot-level tree age,disturbances,temperature and altitude.We found that the combined effects of genus and structural indices were important for addressing the variability in biomass across different spatial scales.Local processes in disturbance regimes and uneven tree age support forest hete rogeneity and the accumulation of live and dead biomass through the natural regeneration,growth and decay of the forest ecosystem.Structural complexities in basal area index,supporte d by genus-level abundance,positively influence total biomass stocks,which was modulated by tree age and disturbances.Spruce forests showed higher tree density and basal area than mixed beech forests,though mixed beech still contributes significantly to biomass across landscapes.Forest heterogeneity was strongly influenced by complexities in forest composition(tree genus diversity,structure).We addressed the importance of primary forests as stable carbon stores,achieved through structure and diversity.Safeguarding such ecosystems is critical for ensuring the stability of the primary forest,carbon store and biodiversity into the future.展开更多
文摘The negative effect of soil erosion and soil compaction is well documented for the purpose of optimum rangeland functioning, while the impact of rangeland degradation on effective soil depth is seldom quantified. The aim of this study was to quantify the response of vegetation cover and soil properties, particularly effective soil depth and soil texture to rangeland degradation. Forty-one farms were sampled in the arid and semi-arid climate of South Africa. Within these farms, data was collected over a vegetation degradation gradient. Results showed a significant decline in relative basal cover (94% ± 15% to 39% ± 17%) and soil depth (90% ± 14% to 73% ± 24%) as rangeland degraded. Soil texture changes over the degradation gradients vary for different homogeneous vegetation types. Indications regarding the loss of a functioning rangeland ecosystem were also demonstrated, using objective long-term relations between rangeland conditions and grazing capacity. The study highlights the importance of sustainable rangeland management practices to reduce the loss in effective soil depth and to ensure the sustainable utilization of the rangeland ecosystem. These results can probably extrapolate to other arid and semi-arid rangelands worldwide.
文摘This study comprehensively examines the multifaceted impact of climate change on Morocco’s ecological sustainability and economic development,focusing on four critical environmental stressors:water stress,deforestation,greenhouse gas emissions,and rising temperatures.These interrelated factors contribute significantly to the degradation of natural ecosystems,the decline in biodiversity,reductions in carbon sequestration,and the disruption of ecological balance.Water scarcity—exacerbated by declining precipitation,excessive groundwater extraction,and rising evapotranspiration—threatens the functionality of wetlands,agricultural productivity,and the livelihoods of rural populations.Deforestation accelerates soil erosion,alters hydrological cycles,and leads to the loss of critical habitats,while greenhouse gas emissions and temperature rise intensify climate variability and increase the frequency of extreme events such as droughts and heatwaves.Using longitudinal data from the World Bank(1990-2022)and advanced econometric modeling through EViews 12 software,this study reveals that water stress and rising temperatures have a statistically significant and negative impact on GDP,indicating that climate pressures undermine Morocco’s economic performance,particularly in climate-sensitive sectors.Conversely,the findings show that deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions are positively correlated with short-term economic growth,reflecting a development pattern heavily reliant on natural resource exploitation and carbon-intensive activities,which may offer temporary gains but pose serious long-term risks to sustainability.These results underscore the urgent need for a paradigm shift toward ecosystem-based adaptation and mitigation strategies,including afforestation,wetland restoration,integrated land and water resource management,and the incorporation of climate resilience into national development frameworks.
基金supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemein-schaft (German Science Foundation) (No. DFG FOR 891/1)the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 30710103907, 30930005)
文摘Sand-fflled splash cups were used to study the erosive power of rainfall and throughfall in the humid subtropics of Southeast China. The splash cup measurements yielded precise and reproducible results under both open field conditions and forest vegetation. The splash cups were exposed to specific forest stands of different ages and to selected species （Schima superba, Castanopsis eyrei, Daphniphyllum oldhamii, Lithocarpus glaber） in the Gutianshan （古田山） National Nature Reserve （GNNR）. The results of the measurements under forest vegetation show that the erosive power of throughfall drops to be 2.59 times higher compared to the open field. This accentuates the importance of shrub, herb and litter layers in forest ecosystems to protect the soil against erosion. Coalescing drops from leaves and branches （drips） are responsible for this notable gain in erosive power. Moreover, differences in sandloss between the investigated tree species （deciduous, evergreen） revealed that the erosion potential and the spatial heterogeneity of throughfall are species-specific. This highlights the importance of selecting specific species for afforestation projects considering the prevention of soil erosion.
基金partially supported by the National Natural Sci-ence Foundation of China(Grant No.32101309)National Key R&D Program of China(Grant No.2022YFF0802102)+1 种基金International Partnership Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences(Grant No.177GJHZ2022020BS)Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS(2021050).
文摘The 21st century has seen an acceleration of global change,including climate change,elevated carbon dioxide,nitrogen deposition,and land-use intensification,which poses a significant threat to ecosystem functioning.Nev-ertheless,studies on the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning(BEF)have consistently demonstrated that biodiversity enhances ecosystem functioning and its stability,even in variable environmental conditions.These findings potentially indicate the critical role of biodiversity in promoting sustainable provi-sioning of ecosystem functioning under global change.Our paper provides a comprehensive review of current BEF research and the response of BEF to multiple global change factors.We demonstrate that(1)assessing the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning requires consideration of multiple dimensions of diversity,such as diversity across multiple trophic levels(plants,animals,and microbes),multiple facets(taxonomy,functional traits,and phylogeny),and multiple spatial scales(local,regional,and landscape scales).(2)The interaction of multiple global change factors may lead to a greater reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning than a single global change factor.(3)Multidimensional biodiversity regulates the response of ecosystem functioning to global change factors,indicating that high levels of multidimensional biodiversity can mitigate the negative impacts of global change on ecosystem functioning.Overall,we emphasize that recognizing the importance of multidimensional biodiversity is critical for sustaining ecosystem functioning.Therefore,prioritizing conserva-tion efforts to maintain and enhance all dimensions of biodiversity is essential to address the challenges of future global change.
基金Supported by Special Funds for Central Financial to Support the Local Colleges and Universities([2013]389)~~
文摘In order to better explore the function of urban forest in human habitation and settlement environment,the ecosystem functions were evaluated in terms of air purification,water conservation,soil conservation,maintenance of biodiversity in Meizhou by the methods of market price,shadow prices approach and opportunity cost,and the problems of the value assessment at home and abroad in urban forest ecosystem services function were simply discussed.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.32371734,42007034,41920104008,and U22A20593)the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences(No.XDA28020400)+2 种基金the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of Chinese Academy of Sciences(No.2023205)the Young Scientist Group Project of Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology of China(No.2022QNXZ04)the Science and Technology Development Project of Jilin Province of China(No.YDZJ202101ZYTS006).
文摘The conversion of saline-alkali soils into paddy fields for long-term rice cultivation involves multiple disturbances,and as a result,soil microbial communities are altered to adapt to changing environmental conditions.However,a comprehensive understanding of the succession of soil bacterial communities that occurs during this process is still lacking.In the present study,we utilized data obtained from paddy fields of different rice cultivation years(0-23 years)to investigate the compositional and functional succession of soil bacterial communities.We focused on core bacterial taxa that were specifically enriched at different successional stages.Generalized joint attribute modeling(GJAM)was used to identify core bacterial taxa.Results indicated that the bare saline-alkali soil(0 year,prior to any rice cultivation)shared few core amplicon sequence variants(ASVs)with paddy fields.In the bare saline-alkali soil,Longimicrobiaceae from the phylum Gemmatimonadetes was dominant,while the dominance was subsequently replaced by Burkholderiaceae and Pedosphaeraceae--phyla affiliated with Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia--after 5 and 23 years of rice cultivation,respectively.The relative abundances of nitrogen metabolism functions in the core bacterial communities of the bare saline-alkali soil were higher than those at other successional stages,while sulfur metabolism functions exhibited the opposite trend.These indicated that the role of the core bacterial taxa in mediating nutrient cycling also evolved and adapted to changing soil conditions as rice cultivation was established.Redundancy analysis(RDA)indicated that the composition of the core bacterial community in paddy fields with rice cultivation for 0,2 and 4,6,8,10,and 12,and 20 and 23 years were driven by soil nitrate nitrogen content,pH,available phosphorus content,and the ratio of total carbon to total nitrogen,respectively.In summary,the present study provides insights into the succession of soil bacterial communities and core bacterial taxa that occurs during long-term rice cultivation.
基金Under the auspices of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.41661088,32101593,42361028)Science and Technology Program of Guizhou Province(No.Qiankehe Zhongyindi[2023]005)+1 种基金2024 Humanities and Social Science Research Project of Guizhou Provincial Department of Education(No.24RWZX007)Graduate Research Fund Project of Guizhou Province(No.2024YJSKYJJ153)。
文摘Land use change is a fundamental factor affecting ecosystem’s structures and functions.However,few studies have explored the ecological disturbance caused by land use change from a combined structural and functional perspective.In this study,the ecological structural disturbance index(SDI)and functional disturbance index(FDI)were introduced to quantitatively evaluate ecological disturbance caused by land use change in a typical karst area—Huangping County,Guizhou Province,China during 2009–2019.Results show that although the area of ecological land increased during past 10 yr,there had been a fragmentation trend of ecological land.Agricultural occupation was more severe than construction encroachment on ecological land.The grids with negative structural disturbance were consistent with areas of obvious dynamic loss and gain of ecological land.Ecological fragmentation had a greater impact than habitat gain in grids with negative structural disturbance.The ecosystem service functions of supply,adjustment,support,and culture were obviously affected by land use change,and the total FDI reflects the trade-off among them.Negative FDI values were easily observed in the rocky desertification area or water and soil loss area.The combination analysis of the SDI and FDI indicated the characteristic of codirectional ecologically structural and functional disturbance in the majority of grids.The findings improve our understanding of multiple relationships among ecological disturbances and provide valuable information for guiding land use activities.
基金the National Natural Science Foundation of China(40771019)the National Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province,China(2007D16).
文摘The Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province of China covers Yulin, Yan＇an, and Tongchuan cities mainly. The kind of physiognomy is complicated and various, including the transitional region of the sand and wind, the hilly-gully fragile region, the pimple mound region from North to South. Large-scale land reclamation projects that are severely affecting these ecosystems have been implemented. In this paper, we reported an investigation to the changes in land use and ecosystem services on the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province from 1978 to 2000. We used three LANDSAT TM and/or ETM data sets to estimate the changes in the size of five land-cover/land-use categories, and we also used previously published value coefficients to estimate the changes in the value of ecosystem services delivered by each land category. Finally, we ranked the contribution of various ecosystem functions to the overall value of the ecosystem services, we have estimated that the annual value of the ecosystem services is 56.95 billon RMB yuan in the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi Province in 2000. In the region, from 1978 to 2000, the economic value of the fixing carbon was higher, the economic value of water conservation was the lowest, but the economic value of the NPP, fixing carbon, and supplying oxygen accounted for above ninety percent of the total value, obviously the vegetation created the biggest ecosystem service value. We can conclude that future land-use policy formulation should give precedence to the conservation of these ecosystems over uncontrolled reclamation, and that further land reclamation should be based on rigorous environmental impact analyses.
文摘Using energy analysis,the quantifying evaluation and study method on production, living and ecology functions and their sustainability of rural settlement ecosystem in mountain area is established with these energy index such as export of labor and products, export of water resource, internal energy reserve, energy consumption for human living, net energy of ecosystem function and net internal reserve. Taking rural settlement Raosi Village in Hengduan Mountains as a case study, and on the basis of the synthetic research into the ecological process of the complex ecosystem, the study shows that energy costs of production, human living and ecology functions are separately taking 1.36%, 13.59% and 85. 05% of the gross ecosystem functions, and the exertions of production and human living functions are close to a high-point state on the present using level of energy in the settlement. The study also shows that the most important function of a rural settlement in mountain area is its ecological rather productive function.
基金The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program,No.2019QZKK0404。
文摘The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP),also known as the Third Pole of the Earth,is a vital ecological security barrier for China.It is a tremendously sensitive region affected by the impacts of global climate change.The escalating intensity of climate change has presented profound challenges to its ecosystem functions and stability.This study first analyzes the spatiotemporal variations of the QTP ecosystem patterns and the key functions of the Plateau including water conservation,soil conservation,and windbreak and sand fixation from 2000 to 2020.It clarifies the regional differences in ecosystem functions and their importance,further evaluates the stability of ecosystem functions,and lays a scientific foundation for an ecological civilization on the Plateau by implementing conservation and restoration projects.The main results show that:(1)From 2000 to 2020,the wetland area in the QTP increased,while the grassland area significantly decreased.There were improvements in water conservation and windbreak and sand fixation capacities,with annual rates of change being 3.57m~3·ha^(-1)·a^(-1)and 0.23 t·ha^(-1)·a^(-1),respectively.However,the overall soil conservation trend declined during the same period,with an annual change rate of-0.16 t·ha^(-1)·a^(-1).(2)The core areas of water conservation,soil conservation,and windbreak and sand fixation on the QTP accounted for 12.7%,13.9%,and 14.2%of the total area,respectively.The core water conservation areas are mainly the southeastern QTP,Sanjiangyuan,and Naqu,while the core windbreak and sand fixation areas were concentrated in the central and western parts of the Plateau.The core soil conservation areas surrounded the entire interior of the Plateau.(3)From 2000 to 2020,the water conservation,soil conservation,and windbreak sand-fixation function on the QTP had higher stability in the southeastern and central parts,while stability was lower in the western region.Considering the stability assessment and ecological protection and restoration practices,the QTP can be divided into three major categories and 16 ecological functional zones.Differentiated ecological protection and restoration efforts can be implemented based on the different core ecosystem functions and zoning.
基金supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No.40171001)National Science and Technology Support Program(Grant No.2006BAB15B02-04)+1 种基金Key Fundamental Item of Hebei Province(Grant No.08966712D)Key Discipline Construction Item of Physical Geography of Hebei Province
文摘In the past,evaluations of ecosystem functions were mostly based on Costanza's model,whereas the spatial,quality and temporal characteristics of regional ecosystems were not considered in the model.Focusing on these issues,coefficients of regional difference,spatial heterogeneity and willingness-to-pay(WTP)were established to modify Costanza's model,and a new comprehensive valuation model of ecosystem functions is proposed.The analytical results indicate that the comprehensive model could evaluate regional ecosystem functions in China accurately and provide more helpful information for decision-making.The empirical study on Zhangbei County in Hebei Province shows that the intensive human activities could limit the provision of ecosystem functions while the planned ecological programs might promote the restoration of ecosystem functions.
基金financially supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2017YFC0505606)the Top Discipline and First-class University Construction Project(ydzxxk201618)of Minzu University of China。
文摘Ecosystem services can be enhanced through ecological restoration,industrial structure adjustment,land-use optimization,and agricultural and forestry ecosystem transformation.The ecosystem services in hilly and mountainous areas of southern China are crucially needed to be enhanced since these regions are important ecological functional zones in China.However,due to its large area,it is not possible to simultaneously upgrade the ecosystem services for all areas,and therefore,priority areas need to be selected to individually upgrade the ecosystem service function.In this study,via an approach of combining remote sensing,geographic information system,and spatial statistics,we identify the priority areas that need to be upgraded based on the analysis of ecological sensitivity,importance of ecosystem service function,and decreased degree in ecosystem services.For five counties in hilly and mountainous areas of southern China,only less than 2% of the total area was identified as the first priority area;its land-use compositions were analyzed and recommendations on how to enhance ecosystem service were suggested.This approach overcomes the conflict and contradiction issues associated with identifying priority areas in previous studies and solves the problems of high cost or difficult implementation of priority areas.
基金National Key R&D Program of China,No.2017YFC0506506,No.2016YFC0500206National Natural Science Foundation of China,No.41501484
文摘Ecosystem services have become one of the core elements of ecosystem management and evaluation. As a key area of ecosystem services and for maintaining national ecological security, ecosystem changes and implementation effect evaluation are important in national key ecological function zones, for promoting the main function zone strategy and for improving the construction of an ecological civilization. This article studies the ecological zone of a tropical rainforest region in the central mountain area of Hainan Island, China. Multi-source satellite data and ground observation statistics are analyzed with geo-statistics method and ecological assessment model. The core analysis of this paper includes ecosystem patterns, quality and services. By means of spatial and temporal scale expansion and multidimensional space-time correlation analysis, the trends and stability characteristics of ecosystem changes are analyzed, and implementation effect evaluation is discussed. The analysis shows a variety of results. The proportion of forest area inside the ecological zone was significantly higher than the average level in Hainan Island. During 1990–2013, settlement gradually increased inside the ecological zone. After implementation of the zone in 2010, human activity intensity increased, with the main land use being urban construction and land reclamation. Water conservation in the ecological function zone was higher than that outside the zone. In general, it increased slightly, but had obvious fluctuations. Soil conservation inside the zone was also better than that outside. However, it demonstrated dramatic fluctuations and relatively poor stability during 1990–2013. The human disturbance index inside the zone was significantly lower than that outside, and had a lower biodiversity threat level. Especially in 2010–2013, the increased range of the human disturbance index inside the zone was significantly less than that outside.
基金Sponsored by Subsidy for the Running of National Positioning Observation Station of Forest Ecosystems in Wenchang City of Hainan Province(2015-LYPT-DW-095)
文摘Based on the measurement parameters and index in the Specifications for Assessment of Forest Ecosystem Services in China(LY/T 1721-2008),the value of ecological service functions of ecological public welfare forest in Wenchang City was evaluated and analyzed.The results show that the total value of ecosystem service function of ecological public welfare forests in Wenchang City is about 4.020 billion yuan,of which storage capacity,water purification,soil fixation,fertilizer(N,P and K fertilizer) conservation,carbon sequestration,oxygen release,forest nutrient accumulation,providing anion,absorbing SO_2,absorbing fluoride,absorbing NxO,absorbing soil heavy metals,dust retention,noise reduction,sterilization,forest protection,forest biodiversity protection,and forest recreation(ecological tourism) are about 1.510 billion,582.256 million,3.769 million,268.220 million,116.360 million,2.747 million,22.682 million,42.817 million,1.722 million,74,600,131,900,187.918 million,77.409 million,28.721 million,43.090 million,180.696 million,571.036 million,and 108.677 million yuan
文摘1 Introduction Fresh or saline,lakes constantly exchange with other water bodies on the Earth.Together,they form a crucial part of the water cycle–one of the most important ecosystem functions supporting humans and other biological communities.Lakes have provided invaluable and irreplaceable ecosystem services(benefits)for the
基金supported by NSF Grant ATM0646856NASA Grant NNX08AE50Gthe Inter American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) through the Cooperative Research Network (CRN)-2094
文摘In this paper, the effects of land cover changes on the climate of the La Plata Basin in southern South America are investigated using the Weather and Research Forecasting （WRF） Model configured on a 30/10- km two-way interactive nested grid. To assess the regional climate changes resulting from land surface changes, the standard land cover types are replaced by time-varying Ecosystem Functional Types （EFTs）, which is a newly devised land-cover classification that characterizes the spatial and interannual variability of surface vegetation dynamics. These variations indicate that natural and anthropogenic activities have caused changes in the surface physical parameters of the basin, such as albedo and roughness length, that contributed to regional climate changes. EFTs are obtained from functional attributes of vegetation computed from properties of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index （NDVI） to represent patches of the land surface with homogeneous energy and gas exchanges with the atmosphere. Four simulations are conducted, each experimental period ranging from September to November in two contrasting years, 1988 and 1998. The influence of an identical EFT change on the surface heat fluxes, 2-m temperature and humidity, 10-m winds, convective instabilities and large-scale moisture fluxes and precipitation are explored for 1988 （a dry year） and 1998 （a wet year）. Results show that the surface and atmospheric climate has a larger response to the same EFT changes in a dry year for 2-m temperature and 10-m wind; the response is larger in a wet year for 2-m water vapor mixing ratio, convective available potential energy, vertically integrated moisture fluxes and surface precipitation. For EFTs with high productivity and a weak seasonal cycle, the near- surface temperature during the spring of 1988 and 1998 increased by as much as I^C in the central and western portions of La Plata Basin. Additionally, for higher productivity EFTs, precipitation differences were generally positive in both dry and wet years, although the patterns are not uniform and exhibit certain patchiness with drier conditions.
基金supported by the Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program under Grant CATER 2012-3030supported by NASA Grant NNX08AE50G+1 种基金NOAA Grant NA09OAR4310189the Inter American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) through the Cooperative Research Network (CRN)-2094
文摘In this paper, we introduce a new concept of land-surface state representation for southern South America, which is based on ＂functional＂ attributes of vegetation, and implement a new land-cover （Ecosystem Functional Type, hereafter EFT） dataset in the Weather and Research Forecasting （WRF） model. We found that the EFT data enabled us to deal with functional attributes of vegetation and time-variant features more easily than the default land-cover data in the WRF. In order to explore the usefulness of the EFT data in simulations of surface and atmospheric variables, numerical simulations of the WRF model, using both the US Geological Survey （USGS） and the EFT data, were conducted over the La Plata Basin in South America for the austral spring of 1998 and compared with observations. Results showed that the model simulations were sensitive to the lower boundary conditions and that the use of the EFT data improved the climate simulation of 2-m temperature and precipitation, implying the need for this type of information to be included in numerical climate models.
基金supported by the Cooperation-Innovation team project of Chinese Academy of Sciencesthe National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30970492 and No. 91025002).
文摘It is widely accepted that there is an economic progress beyond the Gross Domestic Product （GDP）, while global GDP has increased more than three-fold since 1950, whereas ecosystems have been largely occupied and depleted. Since the 1990s, emphasis has focused on function and valuation of ecosystem services, which is rarely treated as a market issue. This paper reviews recent developments on measures to evaluate and assess ecosystem services, while elucidating the function of ecosystem services. On the one hand, functions of ecosystem services are subdivided into several items such as gas reg- ulation, water regulation, soil and nutrient recycling. Also, there exist intellectually guided functions of ecosystem services, such as culture and recreation. On the other hand, ecosystems can be viewed as a supplier in the trade between human beings and natural resources such that all resources can be labeled and quantified.
基金Supported by Anhui Environment Protection Scientific Research Program in 2014(201404)~~
文摘[Objective] The aim was to better reveal the type of ecosystem service function of wetlands in Chao Lake and provide references for protection and man- agement, restoration and rebuilding of local wetland ecosystem. [Method] The val- ues of ecosystem function was estimated by market value method, opportunity cost approach, replacement cost method, shadow engineering approach, travel cost method, hedonic pricing method and contingent value method. [Result] With wetland ecosystem service function value totals 4.968 billion yuan, the value of eco-environ- ment regulation and maintenance was the highest, followed by the value of cultural and social function. The value of material production was the least. The values of sub-functions can be concluded by comparison of service function va}ue and pro- portions, as follows： flood mitigation 〉water purification 〉water conservation 〉 tourism＆leisure〉material production〉scientific research and education〉water supply〉 biodiversity maintenance〉regulation on atmosphere constituents. [Conclusion] The re- search performed quantitative evaluations on ecosystem service function values of wetlands in Chao Lake and is of significance for specific development and protec- tion of local wetlands.
基金funded by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague(Internal Grant Agency:A_03_22-43110/1312/3101)the Czech Science(GACR 21-27454S)。
文摘Primary forests are spatially diverse terrestrial ecosystems with unique characteristics,being naturally regenerative and heterogeneous,which supports the stability of their carbon storage through the accumulation of live and dead biomass.Yet,little is known about the interactions between biomass stocks,tree genus diversity and structure across a temperate montane primary forest.Here,we investigated the relationship between tree structure(variability in basal area and tree size),genus-level diversity(abundance,tree diversity)and biomass stocks in temperate primary mountain forests across Central and Eastern Europe.We used inventory data from726 permanent sample plots from mixed beech and spruce across the Carpathian Mountains.We used nonlinear regression to analyse the spatial variability in forest biomass,structure,and genus-level diversity and how they interact with plot-level tree age,disturbances,temperature and altitude.We found that the combined effects of genus and structural indices were important for addressing the variability in biomass across different spatial scales.Local processes in disturbance regimes and uneven tree age support forest hete rogeneity and the accumulation of live and dead biomass through the natural regeneration,growth and decay of the forest ecosystem.Structural complexities in basal area index,supporte d by genus-level abundance,positively influence total biomass stocks,which was modulated by tree age and disturbances.Spruce forests showed higher tree density and basal area than mixed beech forests,though mixed beech still contributes significantly to biomass across landscapes.Forest heterogeneity was strongly influenced by complexities in forest composition(tree genus diversity,structure).We addressed the importance of primary forests as stable carbon stores,achieved through structure and diversity.Safeguarding such ecosystems is critical for ensuring the stability of the primary forest,carbon store and biodiversity into the future.
