Using the low-resolution （T31, equivalent to 3.75°× 3.75°） version of the Community Earth System Model （CESM） from the National Center for Atmospheric Research （NCAR）, a global climate simulation ...Using the low-resolution （T31, equivalent to 3.75°× 3.75°） version of the Community Earth System Model （CESM） from the National Center for Atmospheric Research （NCAR）, a global climate simulation was carried out with fixed external forcing factors （1850 Common Era. （C.E.） conditions） for the past 2000 years. Based on the simulated results, spatio-temporal structures of surface air temperature, precipitation and internal variability, such as the E1 Nifio-Southem Oscillation （ENSO）, the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscilla- tion （AMO）, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation （PDO）, and the North Atlantic Oscillation （NAO）, were compared with reanalysis datasets to evaluate the model performance. The results are as follows： 1） CESM showed a good performance in the long-term simulation and no significant climate drift over the past 2000 years; 2） climatological patterns of global and regional climate changes simulated by the CESM were reasonable compared with the reanalysis datasets; and 3） the CESM simulated internal natural variability of the climate system performs very well. The model not only reproduced the periodicity of ENSO, AMO and PDO events but also the 3-8 years vari- ability of the ENSO. The spatial distribution of the CESM-simulated NAO was also similar to the observed. However, because of weaker total irradiation and greenhouse gas concentration forcing in the simulation than the present, the model performances had some differences from the observations. Generally, the CESM showed a good performance in simulating the global climate and internal natu- ral variability of the climate system. This paves the way for other forced climate simulations for the past 2000 years by using the CESM.展开更多
A coupled earth system model（ESM） has been developed at the Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology（NUIST） by using version 5.3 of the European Centre Hamburg Model（ECHAM）, version 3.4 of the Nu...A coupled earth system model（ESM） has been developed at the Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology（NUIST） by using version 5.3 of the European Centre Hamburg Model（ECHAM）, version 3.4 of the Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean（NEMO）, and version 4.1 of the Los Alamos sea ice model（CICE）. The model is referred to as NUIST ESM1（NESM1）. Comprehensive and quantitative metrics are used to assess the model＇s major modes of climate variability most relevant to subseasonal-to-interannual climate prediction. The model＇s assessment is placed in a multi-model framework. The model yields a realistic annual mean and annual cycle of equatorial SST, and a reasonably realistic precipitation climatology, but has difficulty in capturing the spring–fall asymmetry and monsoon precipitation domains. The ENSO mode is reproduced well with respect to its spatial structure, power spectrum, phase locking to the annual cycle, and spatial structures of the central Pacific（CP）-ENSO and eastern Pacific（EP）-ENSO; however, the equatorial SST variability,biennial component of ENSO, and the amplitude of CP-ENSO are overestimated. The model captures realistic intraseasonal variability patterns, the vertical-zonal structures of the first two leading predictable modes of Madden–Julian Oscillation（MJO）, and its eastward propagation; but the simulated MJO speed is significantly slower than observed. Compared with the T42 version, the high resolution version（T159） demonstrates improved simulation with respect to the climatology, interannual variance, monsoon–ENSO lead–lag correlation, spatial structures of the leading mode of the Asian–Australian monsoon rainfall variability, and the eastward propagation of the MJO.展开更多
The soil freezing and thawing process affects soil physical properties,such as heat conductivity,heat capacity,and hydraulic conductivity in frozen ground regions,and further affects the processes of soil energy,hydro...The soil freezing and thawing process affects soil physical properties,such as heat conductivity,heat capacity,and hydraulic conductivity in frozen ground regions,and further affects the processes of soil energy,hydrology,and carbon and nitrogen cycles.In this study,the calculation of freezing and thawing front parameterization was implemented into the earth system model of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS-ESM)and its land component,the Common Land Model(CoLM),to investigate the dynamic change of freezing and thawing fronts and their effects.Our results showed that the developed models could reproduce the soil freezing and thawing process and the dynamic change of freezing and thawing fronts.The regionally averaged value of active layer thickness in the permafrost regions was 1.92 m,and the regionally averaged trend value was 0.35 cm yr–1.The regionally averaged value of maximum freezing depth in the seasonally frozen ground regions was 2.15 m,and the regionally averaged trend value was–0.48 cm yr–1.The active layer thickness increased while the maximum freezing depth decreased year by year.These results contribute to a better understanding of the freezing and thawing cycle process.展开更多
The authors review recent advances in the development of coupled Regional Earth System Models （RESMs）,a field that is still in its early stages.To date,coupled regional atmosphere-ocean-sea ice,atmosphere-aerosol an...The authors review recent advances in the development of coupled Regional Earth System Models （RESMs）,a field that is still in its early stages.To date,coupled regional atmosphere-ocean-sea ice,atmosphere-aerosol and atmosphere-biosphere models have been developed,but they have been applied onlyto limited regional settings.Much more work is thus needed to assess their transferability to a wide range of settings.Future challenges in regional climate modeling are identified,including the development of fully coupled RESMs encompassing not only atmosphere,ocean,cryosphere,biosphere,chemosphere,but also the human component in a fully interactive way.展开更多
Fire is a global phenomenon and a major source of aerosols from the terrestrial biosphere to the atmosphere.Most previous studies quantified the effect of fire aerosols on climate and atmospheric circulation,or on the...Fire is a global phenomenon and a major source of aerosols from the terrestrial biosphere to the atmosphere.Most previous studies quantified the effect of fire aerosols on climate and atmospheric circulation,or on the regional and site-scale terrestrial ecosystem productivity.So far,only one work has quantified their global impacts on terrestrial ecosystem productivity based on offline simulations,which,however,did not consider the impacts of aerosol–cloud interactions and aerosol–climate feedbacks.This study quantitatively assesses the influence of fire aerosols on the global annual gross primary productivity(GPP)of terrestrial ecosystems using simulations with the fully coupled global Earth system model CESM1.2.Results show that fire aerosols generally decrease GPP in vegetated areas,with a global total of−1.6 Pg C yr^−1,mainly because fire aerosols cool and dry the land surface and weaken the direct photosynthetically active radiation(PAR).The exception to this is the Amazon region,which is mainly due to a fire-aerosol-induced wetter land surface and increased diffuse PAR.This study emphasizes the importance of the influence of fire aerosols on climate in quantifying global-scale fire aerosols’impacts on terrestrial ecosystem productivity.展开更多
Earth System Models （ESMs） are fundamental tools for understanding climate-carbon feedback. An ESM version of the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model （FGOALS） was recently developed within the IPCC ...Earth System Models （ESMs） are fundamental tools for understanding climate-carbon feedback. An ESM version of the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model （FGOALS） was recently developed within the IPCC AR5 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 （CMIP5） modeling framework, and we describe the development of this model through the coupling of a dynamic global vegetation and terrestrial carbon model with FGOALS-s2. The performance of the coupled model is evaluated as follows. The simulated global total terrestrial gross primary production （GPP） is 124.4 PgC yr-I and net pri- mary production （NPP） is 50.9 PgC yr-1. The entire terrestrial carbon pools contain about 2009.9 PgC, comprising 628.2 PgC and 1381.6 PgC in vegetation and soil pools, respectively. Spatially, in the tropics, the seasonal cycle of NPP and net ecosystem production （NEP） exhibits a dipole mode across the equator due to migration of the monsoon rainbelt, while the seasonal cycle is not so significant in Leaf Area Index （LAI）. In the subtropics, especially in the East Asian monsoon region, the seasonal cycle is obvious due to changes in temperature and precipitation from boreal winter to summer. Vegetation productivity in the northern mid-high latitudes is too low, possibly due to low soil moisture there. On the interannual timescale, the terrestrial ecosystem shows a strong response to ENSO. The model- simulated Nifio3.4 index and total terrestrial NEP are both characterized by a broad spectral peak in the range of 2-7 years. Further analysis indicates their correlation coefficient reaches -0.7 when NEP lags the Nifio3.4 index for about 1-2 months.展开更多
The effect of the Tibetan Plateau(TP)on the Intertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)was investigated using a coupled Earth system model.The location of the ITCZ(in this work represented by the center of the tropical preci...The effect of the Tibetan Plateau(TP)on the Intertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)was investigated using a coupled Earth system model.The location of the ITCZ(in this work represented by the center of the tropical precipitation maximum)over the tropical Atlantic was found to be sensitive to the existence of the TP.Removing the TP led to a remarkable sea surface temperature(SST)cooling(warming)in the Northern(Southern)Hemisphere,which manifested clearly in the Atlantic rather than the Pacific.The locations of maximum precipitation and SST moved southwards clearly in the tropical Atlantic,forcing a southward shift of the atmospheric convection center,and thus the ITCZ.The shift in the ITCZ was also supported by the latitudinal change in the ascending branch of the tropical Hadley Cell,which moved southwards by about 2°in the boreal summer in response to the TP’s removal.From the viewpoint of the energy balance between the two hemispheres,the cooling(warming)in the Northern(Southern)Hemisphere requires an enhanced northward atmospheric heat transport across the equator,which can be realized by the southward displacement of the ITCZ.This study suggests that the presence of the TP may have played an important role in the climatology of the ITCZ,particularly its location over the tropical Atlantic.展开更多
The ocean could profoundly modulate the ever-increasing atmospheric CO_(2) by air-sea CO_(2) exchange process,which is also able to cause signifi cant changes of physical and biogeochemical properties in return.In thi...The ocean could profoundly modulate the ever-increasing atmospheric CO_(2) by air-sea CO_(2) exchange process,which is also able to cause signifi cant changes of physical and biogeochemical properties in return.In this study,we assessed the long-term average and spatial-temporal variability of global air-sea CO_(2) exchange fl ux(F CO_(2))since 1980s basing on the results of 18 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6(CMIP6)Earth System Models(ESMs).Our fi ndings indicate that the CMIP6 ESMs simulated global CO_(2) sink in recent three decades ranges from 1.80 to 2.24 Pg C/a,which is coincidence with the results of cotemporaneous observations.What’s more,the CMIP6 ESMs consistently show that the global oceanic CO_(2) sink has gradually intensifi ed since 1980s as well as the observations.This study confi rms the simulated F CO_(2) could reach agreements with the observations in the aspect of primary climatological characteristics,however,the simulation skills of CIMP6 ESMs in diverse open-sea biomes are unevenness.None of the 18 CMIP6 ESMs could reproduce the observed F CO_(2) increasement in the central-eastern tropical Pacifi c and the midlatitude Southern Ocean.Defi ciencies of some CMIP6 ESMs in reproducing the atmospheric pressure systems of the Southern Hemisphere and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation(ENSO)mode of the tropical Pacifi c are probably the major causes.展开更多
The climatologies of dissolved oxygen concentration in the ocean simulated by nine Earth system models(ESMs) from the historical emission driven experiment of CMIP5(Phase 5 of the Climate Model Intercomparison Project...The climatologies of dissolved oxygen concentration in the ocean simulated by nine Earth system models(ESMs) from the historical emission driven experiment of CMIP5(Phase 5 of the Climate Model Intercomparison Project) are quantitatively evaluated by comparing the simulated oxygen to the WOA09 observation based on common statistical metrics. At the sea surface, distribution of dissolved oxygen is well simulated by all nine ESMs due to well-simulated sea surface temperature(SST), with both globally-averaged error and root mean square error(RMSE) close to zero, and both correlation coefficients and normalized standard deviation close to 1. However, the model performance differs from each other at the intermediate depth and deep ocean where important water masses exist. At the depth of 500 to 1 000 m where the oxygen minimum zones(OMZs) exist, all ESMs show a maximum of globally-averaged error and RMSE, and a minimum of the spatial correlation coefficient. In the ocean interior, the reason for model biases is complicated, and both the meridional overturning circulation(MOC) and the particulate organic carbon flux contribute to the biases of dissolved oxygen distribution. Analysis results show the physical bias contributes more. Simulation bias of important water masses such as North Atlantic Deep Water(NADW), Antarctic Bottom Water(AABW) and North Pacific Intermediate Water(NPIW) indicated by distributions of MOCs greatly affects the distributions of oxygen in north Atlantic, Southern Ocean and north Pacific, respectively.Although the model simulations of oxygen differ greatly from each other in the ocean interior, the multi-model mean shows a better agreement with the observation.展开更多
The Earth system is a complex,nonlinear,and highly coupled system that integrates the atmosphere,land,ocean,cryosphere,lithosphere,and biosphere through various physical,chemical,and biological processes.The Earth Sys...The Earth system is a complex,nonlinear,and highly coupled system that integrates the atmosphere,land,ocean,cryosphere,lithosphere,and biosphere through various physical,chemical,and biological processes.The Earth System Model(ESM)is an advanced mathematical-physical representation of this intricate system.It extends beyond the traditional climate system models that focus primarily on the physical representation of atmospheric,terrestrial,and oceanic states,to encompass environmental and ecological dynamics.Consequently,ESMs are essential tools not only for weather and climate prediction but also for studying environmental and ecological evolution,human-induced climate impacts,and strategies in climate and ecological management.展开更多
Future climate change is usually projected by coupled earth system models under specific emission sce- narios designed by integrated assessment models （IAMs）, and this offline approach means there is no interaction ...Future climate change is usually projected by coupled earth system models under specific emission sce- narios designed by integrated assessment models （IAMs）, and this offline approach means there is no interaction between the coupled earth system models and the IAMs. This paper introduces a new method to design possible future emission scenarios and corresponding climate change, in which a simple economic and climate damage component is added to the coupled earth system model of Beijing Normal University （BNU-ESM）. With the growth of population and technological expertise and the declining emission-to-output ratio described in the Dynamic Inte- grated Climate-Economy model, the projected carbon emission is 13.7 Gt C, resulting in a 2.4℃ warming by the end of the twenty-first century （2080-2099） compared with 1980-1999. This paper also suggests the importance of the land and ocean carbon cycle in determining the CO2 con- centration in the atmosphere. It is hoped that in the near future the next generation of coupled earth system models that include both the natural system and the social dimension will be developed.展开更多
The abilities of 12 earth system models（ESMs） from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase5（CMIP5） to reproduce satellite-derived vegetation biological variables over the Tibetan Plateau（TP） were examine...The abilities of 12 earth system models（ESMs） from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase5（CMIP5） to reproduce satellite-derived vegetation biological variables over the Tibetan Plateau（TP） were examined.The results show that most of the models tend to overestimate the observed leaf area index（LAI）and vegetation carbon above the ground,with the possible reasons being overestimation of photosynthesis and precipitation.The model simulations show a consistent increasing trend with observed LAI over most of the TP during the reference period of 1986-2005,while they fail to reproduce the downward trend around the headstream of the Yellow River shown in the observation due to their coarse resolutions.Three of the models：CCSM4,CESM1-BGC,and NorESM1-ME,which share the same vegetation model,show some common strengths and weaknesses in their simulations according to our analysis.The model ensemble indicates a reasonable spatial distribution but overestimated land coverage,with a significant decreasing trend（-1.48%per decade） for tree coverage and a slight increasing trend（0.58%per decade） for bare ground during the period 1950-2005.No significant sign of variation is found for grass.To quantify the relative performance of the models in representing the observed mean state,seasonal cycle,and interannual variability,a model ranking method was performed with respect to simulated LAI.INMCM4,bcc-csm-1.1m,MPI-ESM-LR,IPSL CM5A-LR,HadGEM2-ES,and CCSM4 were ranked as the best six models in reproducing vegetation dynamics among the 12 models.展开更多
The Earth–Climate System Model(ECSM)is an important platform for multi-disciplinary and multi-sphere integration research,and its development is at the frontier of international geosciences,especially in the field of...The Earth–Climate System Model(ECSM)is an important platform for multi-disciplinary and multi-sphere integration research,and its development is at the frontier of international geosciences,especially in the field of global change.The research and development(R&D)of ECSM in China began in the 1980 s and have achieved great progress.In China,ECSMs are now mainly developed at the Chinese Academy of Sciences,ministries,and universities.Following a brief review of the development history of Chinese ECSMs,this paper summarized the technical characteristics of nine Chinese ECSMs participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 and preliminarily assessed the basic performances of four Chinese models in simulating the global climate and the climate in East Asia.The projected changes of global precipitation and surface air temperature and the associated relationship with the equilibrium climate sensitivity under four shared socioeconomic path scenarios were also discussed.Finally,combined with the international situation,from the perspective of further improvement,eight directions were proposed for the future development of Chinese ECSMs.展开更多
This paper presents a generic procedure to implement a scalable and high performance data analysis framework for large-scale scientific simulation within an in-situ infrastructure. It demonstrates a unique capability ...This paper presents a generic procedure to implement a scalable and high performance data analysis framework for large-scale scientific simulation within an in-situ infrastructure. It demonstrates a unique capability for global Earth system simulations using advanced computing technologies (i.e., automated code analysis and instrumentation), in-situ infrastructure (i.e., ADIOS) and big data analysis engines (i.e., SciKit-learn). This paper also includes a useful case that analyzes a globe Earth System simulations with the integration of scalable in-situ infrastructure and advanced data processing package. The in-situ data analysis framework can provides new insights on scientific discoveries in multiscale modeling paradigms.展开更多
Integrated assessment models and coupled earth system models both have their limitations in understanding the interactions between human activity and the physical earth system. In this paper, a new human--earth system...Integrated assessment models and coupled earth system models both have their limitations in understanding the interactions between human activity and the physical earth system. In this paper, a new human--earth system model, BNU- HESM1.0, constructed by combining the economic and climate damage components of the Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate Change and Economy to the BNU-ESM model, is introduced. The ability of BNU-HESM1.0 in simulating the global CO2 concentration and surface temperature is also evaluated. We find that, compared to observation, BNU-HESM1.0 underestimates the global CO2 concentration and its rising trend during 1965-2005, due to the uncertainty in the economic components. However, the surface temperature simulated by BNU-HESM1.0 is much closer to observation, resulting from the overestimates of surface temperature by the original BNU-ESM model. The uncertainty of BNU-ESM falls within the range of present earth system uncertainty, so it is the economic and climate damage component of BNU-HESM 1.0 that needs to be improved through further study. However, the main purpose of this paper is to introduce a new approach to investigate the complex relationship between human activity and the earth system. It is hoped that it will inspire further ideas that prove valuable in guiding human activities appropriate for a sustainable future climate.展开更多
One of the key issues in international climate negotiations is the formulation of targets for emissions reduction for all countries based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities". Thi...One of the key issues in international climate negotiations is the formulation of targets for emissions reduction for all countries based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities". This formulation depends primarily on the quantitative attribution of the responsibilities of developed and developing countries for historical climate change. Using the Commuity Earth System Model(CESM), we estimate the responsibilities of developed countries and developing countries for climatic change from 1850 to 2005 using their carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions. The results indicate that developed countries contribute approximately 53%–61%, and developing countries approximately 39%–47%, to the increase in global air temperature, upper oceanic warming, sea-ice reduction in the NH, and permafrost degradation. In addition, the spatial heterogeneity of these changes from 1850 to 2005 is primarily attributed to the emissions of greenhouse gases(GHGs)in developed countries. Although uncertainties remain in the climate model and the external forcings used, GHG emissions in developed countries are the major contributor to the observed climate system changes in the 20 th century.展开更多
There is scientific progress in the evaluation methods of recent Earth system models(ESMs).Methods range from single variable to multi-variables,multi-processes,multi-phenomena quantitative evaluations in five layers(...There is scientific progress in the evaluation methods of recent Earth system models(ESMs).Methods range from single variable to multi-variables,multi-processes,multi-phenomena quantitative evaluations in five layers(spheres)of the Earth system,from climatic mean assessment to climate change(such as trends,periodicity,interdecadal variability),extreme values,abnormal characters and quantitative evaluations of phenomena,from qualitative assessment to quantitative calculation of reliability and uncertainty for model simulations.Researchers started considering independence and similarity between models in multi-model use,as well as the quantitative evaluation of climate prediction and projection efect and the quantitative uncertainty contribution analysis.In this manuscript,the simulations and projections by both CMIP5 and CMIP3 that have been published after 2007 are reviewed and summarized.展开更多
基金Under the auspices of National Basic Research Program of China(No.2010CB950102)Strategic and Special Frontier Project of Science and Technology of Chinese Academy of Sciences(No.XDA05080800)+3 种基金National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.41371209,41420104002)Special Research Fund for Doctoral Discipline of Higher Education Institutions(No.20133207110015)Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions(No.14KJA170002)Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions(No.164320H101)
文摘Using the low-resolution （T31, equivalent to 3.75°× 3.75°） version of the Community Earth System Model （CESM） from the National Center for Atmospheric Research （NCAR）, a global climate simulation was carried out with fixed external forcing factors （1850 Common Era. （C.E.） conditions） for the past 2000 years. Based on the simulated results, spatio-temporal structures of surface air temperature, precipitation and internal variability, such as the E1 Nifio-Southem Oscillation （ENSO）, the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscilla- tion （AMO）, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation （PDO）, and the North Atlantic Oscillation （NAO）, were compared with reanalysis datasets to evaluate the model performance. The results are as follows： 1） CESM showed a good performance in the long-term simulation and no significant climate drift over the past 2000 years; 2） climatological patterns of global and regional climate changes simulated by the CESM were reasonable compared with the reanalysis datasets; and 3） the CESM simulated internal natural variability of the climate system performs very well. The model not only reproduced the periodicity of ENSO, AMO and PDO events but also the 3-8 years vari- ability of the ENSO. The spatial distribution of the CESM-simulated NAO was also similar to the observed. However, because of weaker total irradiation and greenhouse gas concentration forcing in the simulation than the present, the model performances had some differences from the observations. Generally, the CESM showed a good performance in simulating the global climate and internal natu- ral variability of the climate system. This paves the way for other forced climate simulations for the past 2000 years by using the CESM.
基金supported by the Research Innovation Program for college graduates of Jiangsu Province (CXLX13 487)
文摘A coupled earth system model（ESM） has been developed at the Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology（NUIST） by using version 5.3 of the European Centre Hamburg Model（ECHAM）, version 3.4 of the Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean（NEMO）, and version 4.1 of the Los Alamos sea ice model（CICE）. The model is referred to as NUIST ESM1（NESM1）. Comprehensive and quantitative metrics are used to assess the model＇s major modes of climate variability most relevant to subseasonal-to-interannual climate prediction. The model＇s assessment is placed in a multi-model framework. The model yields a realistic annual mean and annual cycle of equatorial SST, and a reasonably realistic precipitation climatology, but has difficulty in capturing the spring–fall asymmetry and monsoon precipitation domains. The ENSO mode is reproduced well with respect to its spatial structure, power spectrum, phase locking to the annual cycle, and spatial structures of the central Pacific（CP）-ENSO and eastern Pacific（EP）-ENSO; however, the equatorial SST variability,biennial component of ENSO, and the amplitude of CP-ENSO are overestimated. The model captures realistic intraseasonal variability patterns, the vertical-zonal structures of the first two leading predictable modes of Madden–Julian Oscillation（MJO）, and its eastward propagation; but the simulated MJO speed is significantly slower than observed. Compared with the T42 version, the high resolution version（T159） demonstrates improved simulation with respect to the climatology, interannual variance, monsoon–ENSO lead–lag correlation, spatial structures of the leading mode of the Asian–Australian monsoon rainfall variability, and the eastward propagation of the MJO.
基金This work was jointly funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant Nos.42205168,41830967,and 42175163)the Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS(2021073)the National Key Scientific and Technological Infrastructure project“Earth System Science Numerical Simulator Facility”(EarthLab).
文摘The soil freezing and thawing process affects soil physical properties,such as heat conductivity,heat capacity,and hydraulic conductivity in frozen ground regions,and further affects the processes of soil energy,hydrology,and carbon and nitrogen cycles.In this study,the calculation of freezing and thawing front parameterization was implemented into the earth system model of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS-ESM)and its land component,the Common Land Model(CoLM),to investigate the dynamic change of freezing and thawing fronts and their effects.Our results showed that the developed models could reproduce the soil freezing and thawing process and the dynamic change of freezing and thawing fronts.The regionally averaged value of active layer thickness in the permafrost regions was 1.92 m,and the regionally averaged trend value was 0.35 cm yr–1.The regionally averaged value of maximum freezing depth in the seasonally frozen ground regions was 2.15 m,and the regionally averaged trend value was–0.48 cm yr–1.The active layer thickness increased while the maximum freezing depth decreased year by year.These results contribute to a better understanding of the freezing and thawing cycle process.
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China[grant number 2016YFA0600704]the National Natural Science Foundation of China[grant number Y71301U801]
文摘The authors review recent advances in the development of coupled Regional Earth System Models （RESMs）,a field that is still in its early stages.To date,coupled regional atmosphere-ocean-sea ice,atmosphere-aerosol and atmosphere-biosphere models have been developed,but they have been applied onlyto limited regional settings.Much more work is thus needed to assess their transferability to a wide range of settings.Future challenges in regional climate modeling are identified,including the development of fully coupled RESMs encompassing not only atmosphere,ocean,cryosphere,biosphere,chemosphere,but also the human component in a fully interactive way.
基金This study was co-supported by the National Key R&D Program of China[grant number 2017YFA0604302]the National Natural Science Foundation of China[grant numbers 41475099 and 41875137]the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences[grant number QYZDY-SSW-DQC002].
文摘Fire is a global phenomenon and a major source of aerosols from the terrestrial biosphere to the atmosphere.Most previous studies quantified the effect of fire aerosols on climate and atmospheric circulation,or on the regional and site-scale terrestrial ecosystem productivity.So far,only one work has quantified their global impacts on terrestrial ecosystem productivity based on offline simulations,which,however,did not consider the impacts of aerosol–cloud interactions and aerosol–climate feedbacks.This study quantitatively assesses the influence of fire aerosols on the global annual gross primary productivity(GPP)of terrestrial ecosystems using simulations with the fully coupled global Earth system model CESM1.2.Results show that fire aerosols generally decrease GPP in vegetated areas,with a global total of−1.6 Pg C yr^−1,mainly because fire aerosols cool and dry the land surface and weaken the direct photosynthetically active radiation(PAR).The exception to this is the Amazon region,which is mainly due to a fire-aerosol-induced wetter land surface and increased diffuse PAR.This study emphasizes the importance of the influence of fire aerosols on climate in quantifying global-scale fire aerosols’impacts on terrestrial ecosystem productivity.
基金supported by the CAS Strategic Priority Research Program(Grant No.XDA05110303)the"973"programs(Grant Nos.2012CB417203 and 2010CB950404)+1 种基金the"863"program(Grant No.2010AA012305)the National Science Foundation of China(Grant Nos.41023002 and 40805038)
文摘Earth System Models （ESMs） are fundamental tools for understanding climate-carbon feedback. An ESM version of the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model （FGOALS） was recently developed within the IPCC AR5 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 （CMIP5） modeling framework, and we describe the development of this model through the coupling of a dynamic global vegetation and terrestrial carbon model with FGOALS-s2. The performance of the coupled model is evaluated as follows. The simulated global total terrestrial gross primary production （GPP） is 124.4 PgC yr-I and net pri- mary production （NPP） is 50.9 PgC yr-1. The entire terrestrial carbon pools contain about 2009.9 PgC, comprising 628.2 PgC and 1381.6 PgC in vegetation and soil pools, respectively. Spatially, in the tropics, the seasonal cycle of NPP and net ecosystem production （NEP） exhibits a dipole mode across the equator due to migration of the monsoon rainbelt, while the seasonal cycle is not so significant in Leaf Area Index （LAI）. In the subtropics, especially in the East Asian monsoon region, the seasonal cycle is obvious due to changes in temperature and precipitation from boreal winter to summer. Vegetation productivity in the northern mid-high latitudes is too low, possibly due to low soil moisture there. On the interannual timescale, the terrestrial ecosystem shows a strong response to ENSO. The model- simulated Nifio3.4 index and total terrestrial NEP are both characterized by a broad spectral peak in the range of 2-7 years. Further analysis indicates their correlation coefficient reaches -0.7 when NEP lags the Nifio3.4 index for about 1-2 months.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China[grant numbers 41725021,91337106,and 91737204].
文摘The effect of the Tibetan Plateau(TP)on the Intertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)was investigated using a coupled Earth system model.The location of the ITCZ(in this work represented by the center of the tropical precipitation maximum)over the tropical Atlantic was found to be sensitive to the existence of the TP.Removing the TP led to a remarkable sea surface temperature(SST)cooling(warming)in the Northern(Southern)Hemisphere,which manifested clearly in the Atlantic rather than the Pacific.The locations of maximum precipitation and SST moved southwards clearly in the tropical Atlantic,forcing a southward shift of the atmospheric convection center,and thus the ITCZ.The shift in the ITCZ was also supported by the latitudinal change in the ascending branch of the tropical Hadley Cell,which moved southwards by about 2°in the boreal summer in response to the TP’s removal.From the viewpoint of the energy balance between the two hemispheres,the cooling(warming)in the Northern(Southern)Hemisphere requires an enhanced northward atmospheric heat transport across the equator,which can be realized by the southward displacement of the ITCZ.This study suggests that the presence of the TP may have played an important role in the climatology of the ITCZ,particularly its location over the tropical Atlantic.
基金Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.41806133)the Marine S&T Fund of Shandong Province for the Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology(Qingdao)(No.2022QNLM040003-1)+1 种基金the National Key Research and Development Program of China(No.2017YFA0603204)the Fund of Key Laboratory of Global Change and Marine-Atmospheric Chemistry,MNR(No.GCMAC1905)。
文摘The ocean could profoundly modulate the ever-increasing atmospheric CO_(2) by air-sea CO_(2) exchange process,which is also able to cause signifi cant changes of physical and biogeochemical properties in return.In this study,we assessed the long-term average and spatial-temporal variability of global air-sea CO_(2) exchange fl ux(F CO_(2))since 1980s basing on the results of 18 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6(CMIP6)Earth System Models(ESMs).Our fi ndings indicate that the CMIP6 ESMs simulated global CO_(2) sink in recent three decades ranges from 1.80 to 2.24 Pg C/a,which is coincidence with the results of cotemporaneous observations.What’s more,the CMIP6 ESMs consistently show that the global oceanic CO_(2) sink has gradually intensifi ed since 1980s as well as the observations.This study confi rms the simulated F CO_(2) could reach agreements with the observations in the aspect of primary climatological characteristics,however,the simulation skills of CIMP6 ESMs in diverse open-sea biomes are unevenness.None of the 18 CMIP6 ESMs could reproduce the observed F CO_(2) increasement in the central-eastern tropical Pacifi c and the midlatitude Southern Ocean.Defi ciencies of some CMIP6 ESMs in reproducing the atmospheric pressure systems of the Southern Hemisphere and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation(ENSO)mode of the tropical Pacifi c are probably the major causes.
基金The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract No.41306029the Basic Scientific Fund for National Public Research Institutes of China under contract Nos 2013T01 and 2014G25
文摘The climatologies of dissolved oxygen concentration in the ocean simulated by nine Earth system models(ESMs) from the historical emission driven experiment of CMIP5(Phase 5 of the Climate Model Intercomparison Project) are quantitatively evaluated by comparing the simulated oxygen to the WOA09 observation based on common statistical metrics. At the sea surface, distribution of dissolved oxygen is well simulated by all nine ESMs due to well-simulated sea surface temperature(SST), with both globally-averaged error and root mean square error(RMSE) close to zero, and both correlation coefficients and normalized standard deviation close to 1. However, the model performance differs from each other at the intermediate depth and deep ocean where important water masses exist. At the depth of 500 to 1 000 m where the oxygen minimum zones(OMZs) exist, all ESMs show a maximum of globally-averaged error and RMSE, and a minimum of the spatial correlation coefficient. In the ocean interior, the reason for model biases is complicated, and both the meridional overturning circulation(MOC) and the particulate organic carbon flux contribute to the biases of dissolved oxygen distribution. Analysis results show the physical bias contributes more. Simulation bias of important water masses such as North Atlantic Deep Water(NADW), Antarctic Bottom Water(AABW) and North Pacific Intermediate Water(NPIW) indicated by distributions of MOCs greatly affects the distributions of oxygen in north Atlantic, Southern Ocean and north Pacific, respectively.Although the model simulations of oxygen differ greatly from each other in the ocean interior, the multi-model mean shows a better agreement with the observation.
基金Supported by the National Large Scientific and Technological InfrastructureEarth System Numerical Simulation Facility and National Natural Science Foundation of China(41991282).
文摘The Earth system is a complex,nonlinear,and highly coupled system that integrates the atmosphere,land,ocean,cryosphere,lithosphere,and biosphere through various physical,chemical,and biological processes.The Earth System Model(ESM)is an advanced mathematical-physical representation of this intricate system.It extends beyond the traditional climate system models that focus primarily on the physical representation of atmospheric,terrestrial,and oceanic states,to encompass environmental and ecological dynamics.Consequently,ESMs are essential tools not only for weather and climate prediction but also for studying environmental and ecological evolution,human-induced climate impacts,and strategies in climate and ecological management.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41605036 and 41305053)the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFA0602703)+1 种基金the National-Level Major Cultivation Project of Guangdong Province (2014GKXM058)the Open Project of the State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Science (SKLCS-OP-2016-09)
文摘Future climate change is usually projected by coupled earth system models under specific emission sce- narios designed by integrated assessment models （IAMs）, and this offline approach means there is no interaction between the coupled earth system models and the IAMs. This paper introduces a new method to design possible future emission scenarios and corresponding climate change, in which a simple economic and climate damage component is added to the coupled earth system model of Beijing Normal University （BNU-ESM）. With the growth of population and technological expertise and the declining emission-to-output ratio described in the Dynamic Inte- grated Climate-Economy model, the projected carbon emission is 13.7 Gt C, resulting in a 2.4℃ warming by the end of the twenty-first century （2080-2099） compared with 1980-1999. This paper also suggests the importance of the land and ocean carbon cycle in determining the CO2 con- centration in the atmosphere. It is hoped that in the near future the next generation of coupled earth system models that include both the natural system and the social dimension will be developed.
基金Supported by the National Basic Research and Development (973) Program of China(2010CB950503 and 2013CB956004)Research Fund for Climate Change of the China Meteorological Administration(CCSF201403)
文摘The abilities of 12 earth system models（ESMs） from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase5（CMIP5） to reproduce satellite-derived vegetation biological variables over the Tibetan Plateau（TP） were examined.The results show that most of the models tend to overestimate the observed leaf area index（LAI）and vegetation carbon above the ground,with the possible reasons being overestimation of photosynthesis and precipitation.The model simulations show a consistent increasing trend with observed LAI over most of the TP during the reference period of 1986-2005,while they fail to reproduce the downward trend around the headstream of the Yellow River shown in the observation due to their coarse resolutions.Three of the models：CCSM4,CESM1-BGC,and NorESM1-ME,which share the same vegetation model,show some common strengths and weaknesses in their simulations according to our analysis.The model ensemble indicates a reasonable spatial distribution but overestimated land coverage,with a significant decreasing trend（-1.48%per decade） for tree coverage and a slight increasing trend（0.58%per decade） for bare ground during the period 1950-2005.No significant sign of variation is found for grass.To quantify the relative performance of the models in representing the observed mean state,seasonal cycle,and interannual variability,a model ranking method was performed with respect to simulated LAI.INMCM4,bcc-csm-1.1m,MPI-ESM-LR,IPSL CM5A-LR,HadGEM2-ES,and CCSM4 were ranked as the best six models in reproducing vegetation dynamics among the 12 models.
基金Supported by the International Partnership Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences(134111KYSB20160031)National Natural Science Foundation of China(41875132).
文摘The Earth–Climate System Model(ECSM)is an important platform for multi-disciplinary and multi-sphere integration research,and its development is at the frontier of international geosciences,especially in the field of global change.The research and development(R&D)of ECSM in China began in the 1980 s and have achieved great progress.In China,ECSMs are now mainly developed at the Chinese Academy of Sciences,ministries,and universities.Following a brief review of the development history of Chinese ECSMs,this paper summarized the technical characteristics of nine Chinese ECSMs participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 and preliminarily assessed the basic performances of four Chinese models in simulating the global climate and the climate in East Asia.The projected changes of global precipitation and surface air temperature and the associated relationship with the equilibrium climate sensitivity under four shared socioeconomic path scenarios were also discussed.Finally,combined with the international situation,from the perspective of further improvement,eight directions were proposed for the future development of Chinese ECSMs.
文摘This paper presents a generic procedure to implement a scalable and high performance data analysis framework for large-scale scientific simulation within an in-situ infrastructure. It demonstrates a unique capability for global Earth system simulations using advanced computing technologies (i.e., automated code analysis and instrumentation), in-situ infrastructure (i.e., ADIOS) and big data analysis engines (i.e., SciKit-learn). This paper also includes a useful case that analyzes a globe Earth System simulations with the integration of scalable in-situ infrastructure and advanced data processing package. The in-situ data analysis framework can provides new insights on scientific discoveries in multiscale modeling paradigms.
基金funded by the National Key Program for Global Change Research of China(Grant No.2010CB950504)the National Basic Research Program of China(973 Program)(Grant No. 2012CB95570001)the nationallevel major cultivation project of Guangdong Province entitled:"The construction and application of coupled earth system and social economic models"(Grant No.2014GKXM058)
文摘Integrated assessment models and coupled earth system models both have their limitations in understanding the interactions between human activity and the physical earth system. In this paper, a new human--earth system model, BNU- HESM1.0, constructed by combining the economic and climate damage components of the Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate Change and Economy to the BNU-ESM model, is introduced. The ability of BNU-HESM1.0 in simulating the global CO2 concentration and surface temperature is also evaluated. We find that, compared to observation, BNU-HESM1.0 underestimates the global CO2 concentration and its rising trend during 1965-2005, due to the uncertainty in the economic components. However, the surface temperature simulated by BNU-HESM1.0 is much closer to observation, resulting from the overestimates of surface temperature by the original BNU-ESM model. The uncertainty of BNU-ESM falls within the range of present earth system uncertainty, so it is the economic and climate damage component of BNU-HESM 1.0 that needs to be improved through further study. However, the main purpose of this paper is to introduce a new approach to investigate the complex relationship between human activity and the earth system. It is hoped that it will inspire further ideas that prove valuable in guiding human activities appropriate for a sustainable future climate.
基金funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant Nos.41330527 and 41505068)National Key Program for Global Change Research of China(Grant No.2010CB950500)Fundamental Research Funds of CAMS(Grant No.2015Y004)
文摘One of the key issues in international climate negotiations is the formulation of targets for emissions reduction for all countries based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities". This formulation depends primarily on the quantitative attribution of the responsibilities of developed and developing countries for historical climate change. Using the Commuity Earth System Model(CESM), we estimate the responsibilities of developed countries and developing countries for climatic change from 1850 to 2005 using their carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions. The results indicate that developed countries contribute approximately 53%–61%, and developing countries approximately 39%–47%, to the increase in global air temperature, upper oceanic warming, sea-ice reduction in the NH, and permafrost degradation. In addition, the spatial heterogeneity of these changes from 1850 to 2005 is primarily attributed to the emissions of greenhouse gases(GHGs)in developed countries. Although uncertainties remain in the climate model and the external forcings used, GHG emissions in developed countries are the major contributor to the observed climate system changes in the 20 th century.
基金supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology 973 Project(No.2010CB950501-03)the National Natural Science Foundation(No.41175066)
文摘There is scientific progress in the evaluation methods of recent Earth system models(ESMs).Methods range from single variable to multi-variables,multi-processes,multi-phenomena quantitative evaluations in five layers(spheres)of the Earth system,from climatic mean assessment to climate change(such as trends,periodicity,interdecadal variability),extreme values,abnormal characters and quantitative evaluations of phenomena,from qualitative assessment to quantitative calculation of reliability and uncertainty for model simulations.Researchers started considering independence and similarity between models in multi-model use,as well as the quantitative evaluation of climate prediction and projection efect and the quantitative uncertainty contribution analysis.In this manuscript,the simulations and projections by both CMIP5 and CMIP3 that have been published after 2007 are reviewed and summarized.
